THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


yt//<^ 


The  Temple^Tanjore 


INDIA 


PAST   AND    PRESENT 


BY 


C.  H.  FORBES-LINDSAY 


ILLUSTRATED 


In    Two    Volumes 


VOL.   I 


PHILADELPHIA 
THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  CO. 
1903 


Copyright,  1903,  by 
HENRY  T.  COATES  &    CO. 


i-  13 


DEDICATED 

TO 

THE  MOST  APPRECIATIVE  OF  READERS 

AND 

THE  MOST  LENIENT  OF  CRITICS, 

MY  MOTUER. 


r;i  (Yir..'^ 


PREFACE. 


In  one  way  or  another  I  have  maintained  a  con- 
tinuous connection  with  India  since  my  birth,  which 
occurred  at  Calcutta  in  tlie  days  when  the  "  voyage 
home "  was  made  "  round  the  Cape."  During  my 
school-days  in  England,  India  was  the  residence  of 
my  parents,  and  of  the  parents  of  many  of  my  com- 
rades. It  was  the  land  whence  came  bronzed  and 
bearded  men,  who  gave  us  sovereigns  and  cricket-bats, 
and  brought  messages  from  the  fathers  and  mothers 
who  in  too  many  instances  had  become  mere  memories 
of  the  vaguest  kind. 

Chance,  or  more  likely  the  mysterious  attraction 
India  has  for  the  sons  of  fathers  who  have  served 
her,  drew  me  back  to  that  country  in  early  manhood. 
During  a  sojourn  of  several  years  I  traveled  from 
point  to  point,  as  duty  dictated  or  pleasure  prompted, 
and  in  that  way  a  great  deal  of  the  vast  area  of  India 
was  covered,  and  most  of  its  principal  cities  were 
visited. 


vi  PREFACE. 

llms  it  happens  that  in  the  coniposiliou  of  the 
j;riator  j>art  of  these  volumes  I  have  had  the  advan- 
tage of  knowledge  derived  from  personal  observation. 
For  the  rest  I  have  availed  myself  of  the  experiences 
of  others,  as  narrated  in  person,  or  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  most  recent  books,  from  which  desirable 
material  has  been  freely  drawn. 

In  the  belief  that  the  reader  whose  chief  aim  is 
entertainment  dislikes  the  distraction  of  frequent  foot- 
notes, they  have  been  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 
In  many  cases  where  quotations  ap[)ear,  no  reference 
is  made  to  their  sources ;  but  whenever  an  extract 
contains  a  statement  of  importance,  the  name  of  the 
author  has  been  connected  w  ith  it.  Indian  words  are 
defined  when  such  explanation  is  necessary  to  an 
understanding  of  the  context ;  otherwise  such  defini- 
tions have  been  relegated  to  the  Glossary,  which,  it  is 
hoped,  will  be  found  sufficiently  complete  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  studious,  as  well  as  of  the  casual,  reader. 

Considered  from  any  point  of  view,  India  is  a 
vast  sul)jcct.  Its  history,  its  people,  its  architecture, 
its  j)hysical  features — any  one  of  these  might  be 
trejited  to  the  extent  of  two  such  volumes  as  the 
present.  Far  from  experiencing  any  difficulty  on  the 
score  of  lack  of  material,  I  have  been  mainly  con- 
cerned as  to  what  to  omit.  While  endeavoring  to 
make  my  scope  as  wide  as  possible,  I  have  restricted 
my  effi)rt  to  the  production  of  a  sketch  Avhich  shall 
give  a  general  impression  of  the  country  in  all  its 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


aspects,  without  any  pretence  to  the  fullness  of  detail 
one  would  look  for  in  a  technical  work. 

India  is  a  land  of  strange  contrasts,  not  the  least 
striking  of  these  being  the  immutability  of  its  social 
institutions  as  compared  with  the  constant  changes 
in  its  political  conditions.  Caste,  religion,  and  the 
customs  growing  out  of  them,  are  to-day,  in  their 
essential  features,  what  they  were  in  the  remote  past. 
In  these  respects  a  century  in  the  Orient  is  but  as  a 
decade  of  AVestern  civilization.  The  progress  of  the 
past  hundred  years  in  India  has  equaled  that  of  all 
previous  time. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  history  of  India  is  a  record 
of  unceasing  turmoil.  Wave  upon  wave,  the  sea  of 
hostile  invasion  has  inundated  the  land.  Its  capitals 
have  been  .shaken  by  revolution  time  and  again; 
new  rulers  have  risen  in  sudden  strength  and  old 
dynasties  have  disappeared  as  dew  before  the  sun. 
But  through  all  the  shiftings  of  the  political  kaleido- 
scope the  masses  have  slumbrously  pursued  their  way, 
ignorant  perhaps,  or  at  any  rate  reckless,  of  the  for- 
tunes of  their  over-lords.  Not  in  the  people,  then,  do 
we  trace  the  course  of  past  events,  but  in  the  build- 
ings which  form  connecting  links  between  di.stant 
centuries.  Hardly  a  temple  or  palace  in  the  country 
but  is  rich  in  historical  association.s. 

By  supplementing  description  with  history  and 
tradition,  I  have  endeavored  to  tell  the  story  of  India 
in  outline;    not  completely  as  to  detail,  but  as  a  con- 


viii  PREFACE. 

sistcut  \vlu)lo.  Each  locality  has  been  treated  iu  the 
liixht  of  the  pa^t,  as  well  as  of  the  present,  and,  indeed, 
in  sucii  close  toncli  are  Past  and  Present  in  India 
that  no  other  view  is  possible.  With  slight  change, 
the  background  of  scenery  is  the  same  to-day  as  when 
Babar's  host  overran  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  or 
when  Sivaji  devastated  the  Deccan. 

If  the  book  affords  pleasant  entertainment,  and 
leaves  the  reader  with  a  fairly  clear  and  comprehensive 
picture  of  India  and  its  people,  the  object  with  which 
it  was  written  will  have  been  attained. 

C.  H.  F-L. 

PuiLADELPHiA,  October  1st,  1903. 


CONTENTS. 

Vol.  I. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE 

India  in  Outline i 

CHAPTER  II. 
Legendary  India 18 

CHAPTER  III. 
India  under  Hindu  Rule, 29 

CHAPTER  IV. 
India  under  Muhammadan  Rule, 42 

CHAPTER  V. 
India  under  British  Rule 60 

CHAPTER  vr. 
India  under  British  Rule, 80 

CHAPTER  Vn. 
India  at  the  Present  Day, 97 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  People, 108 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

PAOF. 

HoMHAY,  Elepiianta,  Kaniiari,  Kauli, 127 

CHAPTER  X. 

The   Deccan,  Poona,  Singurii,  Raigukii,  PERXABOURn, 
Hijapur, 144 

CHAPTER  XI. 

The  Deccan,  Haidakauad,  Golconda,  Secunderabad, 
Elloka,  Ralza, 171 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Madras,  Trivalur,  MahabalIpur,  Conjeveram,  Tricho- 
NOPOLI,  Arcot 193 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Calcutta, 216 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Sati  and  Thagi, 238 

CHAPTER  XV. 
The  Himalayas,  Parjiling  Kanchanjanga,  Senchal,  .    257 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
The  Himalayas,  Sikkim,  Nepal, 277 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
The  Himalay'as,  Hardwar,  Dehra  Dcn,  Simla,      .    .    .    295 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Kashmir, 307 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 
Vol.  I. 


PAGE 

The  Temple,  Tanjore, .  Frontispiece 

Tree  Ferns,  Neilgherry  Hills, 8 

Hath-Khana,  Delhi, 38 

A  Temple  Elephant, 62 

Massacre  Ghat,  Cawnpur, 94 

Potters  at  Work, 104 

Hill  Men  of  Ladak, 112 

High  Caste  Child 118 

Hindu  Mother  and  Child, 128 

University  and  Clock  Tower,  Bombay, 130 

Caves  of  Elephanta, 136 

Tomb  of  Jaiianara  Begam, 152 

Colonnade  of  Palace,  Tadpatri, 160 

Cave  Temples,  Ellora, 190 


xii  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

llocK  or  TuicniNoi'OLi 204 

Entrance  to  thk  Palace,  Madura, 206 

Detail  of  the  Temple,  Madura, 208 

A  Gapura  of  the  Temple,  Madura, 210 

Sacked  Bull,  Tanjore, 212 

General  Post  Office,  Caixutta 220 

Railroad  over  Ghats,  Khandalla 258 

Panorama  of  Darjiling 268 

Snake  Charmers, 296 

Girls  of  Kashmir, 310 

Panorama  of  Kashmir, 316 


INDIA. 

CHAPTER  I. 

INDIA   IN  OUTLINE. 

Jutting  out  from  the  middle  continent  of  Asia 
directly  towards  the  equator  is  the  land  of  India, 
whose  outline  forms  an  inverted  triangle,  with  the 
everlastingly  snow-clad  peaks  of  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains for  its  base  and  Cape  Comorin  at  its  apex.  Its 
eastern  limits  are  defined  by  the  Valley  of  the  Brah- 
maputra and  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  On  the  southeast 
the  Gulf  of  Manaar  separates  it  from  Ceylon ;  on  the 
south  and  west  the  Indian  Ocean  laps  its  shores,  and 
the  Hiila  and  Sulaiman  Mountains  divide  it  from  the, 
lands  of  the  Baluchi  and  the  Afghan  on  the  north- 
west. It  extends  from  Attock,  in  latitude  34°  north, 
to  Cape  Comorin,  in  latitude  8°  north,  and  from  the 
eastern  limits  of  Assam,  in  longitude  9G°  east,  to  a 
point  in  the  Sulaiman  range  67°  30'  east.  Its  extreme 
length  is  about  nineteen  hundred  miles,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  is  nearly  the  same  distance. 
Vol.  I.— 1 


2  INDIA. 

The  country  was  known  to  the  Araba  in  early  ages 
by  the  appellation  Al-Hind.  The  word  India  is  not 
synonymous  with  the  Persian  name  Hindustan.  The 
former  is  derived  from  Indus,  the  Blue  River ;  the 
latter  from  hind,  dark,  and  stdn,  country,  referring  to 
the  color  of  the  inhabitants,  whose  skin,  although  in 
general  of  a  lighter  hue  than  that  of  the  negro,  was 
black  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  Persian  invaders. 
In  early  times  the  natives  of  the  country  spoke  of  it 
as  Bhitrat-Kand,  or  the  dominion  of  Bharat.  Modern 
Hindus  give  it  a  variety  of  names,  more  or  less  hyper- 
bolical, such  as  Panyabhumi,  the  "  Land  of  Virtue," 
and  Medhyanti,  the  "  Centre,"  or,  as  we  might  say, 
the  "  Hub  of  the  Universe." 

No  countiy  on  earth  offers  such  a  wealth  of 
material  to  the  historian,  the  antiquarian,  the  ethnolo- 
gist, the  naturalist,  the  linguist,  the  romancist,  the 
political  economist,  or  the  traveler  in  search  of  pleas- 
urable and  improving  experiences,  as  India. 

This  glorious  region,  which  has  aroused  the 
cupidity  of  nations  and  excited  the  admiration  of 
poets  from  time  immemorial,  is  truly  a  land  of  superla- 
tives. Its  chief  features  and  characteristics  are  upon 
a  scale  which,  for  magnitude,  beauty,  or  interest,  is  in 
few  instances  rivaled,  and  in  fewer  still  surpassed.  It 
has  the  highest  mountains,  the  most  inspiring  rivers, 
the  greatest  variety  of  nationality  and  language,  the 
most  diversified  climate  and  scenery,  the  grandest 
mausoleums  and  temples,  the  most  perfect  forest  con- 


INDIA  IN  OUTLINE.  3 

servancy,  the  most  wonderful  bridge,  the  most  elabor- 
ate irrigation  system,  and  the  most  magnificent  rail- 
road station.  These  are  but  few  of  many  features  in 
which  India  stands  second  to  none  of  the  countries  of 
the  world. 

If  the  triangle,  to  which  we  have  likened  the  shape 
of  India,  be  bisected  laterally  by  a  line  drawn  from 
Calcutta  to  Baroda,  the  parts  of  it  will  represent  the 
two  great  geographical  divisions  of  the  Indian  con- 
tinent. To  the  north  the  Himalayas  and  the  Gangetic 
Plain,  and  to  the  south  the  great  table-land  of  the 
Deccan,  inclosed  by  the  Vindhya  Mountain  range  and 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Ghats.  The  latter  territory 
was  an  island  at  the  dawn  of  the  world,  and  still  main- 
tains something  of  an  isolation,  not  only  in  its  physi- 
cal features,  but  also  in  its  racial  and  philological 
characteristics. 

The  general  structural  aspect  of  the  Himalayas  is 
that  of  two  parallel  lines  of  peaks,  now  converging 
and  anon  running  apart,  inclosing  table-land  and 
valley,  with  here  and  there  a  cluster  of  hills,  and,  upon 
the  southern  side,  gradually  declining  ranges  descend- 
ino;  at  rifjht  ansrles  to  the  level.  In  its  extent  of 
nearly  fifteen  hundred  miles  the  range  includes  one 
hundred  and  twenty  peaks  exceeding  twenty  thou- 
sand feet  above  sea  level,  fifty-seven  over  twenty-three 
thousand,  and  the  highest  mountain  on  the  globe, 
Mount  Everest,  which  reaches  an  elevation  of  twenty- 
nine  thousand  feet,  a  height  only  one  thousand  feet  in 


4  INDIA. 

c.\(rss  of  its  twin,  Kaiiclianjaiigii.  At  its  western 
ciul  the  nujiii  niuge  takes  a  southern  trend,  forming 
the  spur  styled  the  Hindu-Kiish.  This  has  been 
ajitly  called  the  "  Gateway  of  India,"  for  it  was 
through  its  defiles  that  the  early  invaders  poured  into 
the  valley  of  the  Indus,  and  mere  mention  of  the 
Khyber  Pass,  Chitral  and  Gilgit  will  remind  the 
reader  of  the  strategic  importance  of  this  corner  of 
the  Indian  Empire  at  the  present  day.  The  Plindu- 
Ktish  is  not,  however,  the  only  natural  barrier  to 
ingress  in  this  direction,  for  immediately  on  entering 
the  j)lains  an  army  would  find  itself  confronted  by 
the  "  five  rivers,"  which  give  its  name  to  the  Punjab, 
and  the  passage  of  which  would  be  extremely  difficult 
in  the  face  of  an  opposing  force. 

The  scenery  of  the  Himalayas  is  unique  in  its 
grandeur,  but  upon  a  scale  so  vast  that  the  eye  is  only 
capable  of  comparatively  small  effects.  The  point 
of  view  is  usually  at  a  considerable  elevation,  and  so 
thickly  clustered  are  the  innumerable  ridges  that  the 
main  peaks  are  dwarfed.  Of  the  two  giants,  Mount 
Everest  presents  but  a  small  proportion  of  its  height 
to  the  vulgar  gaze,  but  viewed  from  a  point  on  the 
border  of  Sikkim,  Kanchanjanga  offers  almost  its 
entire  bulk  to  the  admiring  spectator.  The  foreground 
of  the  picture  is  filled  with  the  richest  and  brightest 
vegetation,  gradually  fading  into  dark  and  massy 
foliage,  topped  by  the  eternal  snows.  If  the  enforced 
elevation  from  which  most  Himalayan  scenes  must  be 


INDIA  IN  OUTLINE.  5 

viewed  robs  the  mountains  of  something  of  their 
grandeur,  it  has  its  compensating  advantage  in  afford- 
ing wonderful  composite  pictures  of  hill  and  plain, 
which  have  not  their  counterpart  anywhere. 

One  of  the  most  striking  of  these  may  be  enjoyed 
from  the  invalid  station  of  Kasauli,  at  six  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  ascent  is  so  sheer  that  the 
path  is  cut  zigzag,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw,  and  from 
the  crown  of  the  hill  one  may  drop  a  stone  into  the 
village  of  Kalka  below.  Northward  one  looks  toward 
the  neighboring  station  of  Sabathu,  with  the  snow 
line  for  a  background.  Turning  about,  the  eyes  rest 
upon  a  vast  expanse  of  sandy  level,  merging  like  an 
ocean  into  the  horizon,  with  the  river  Sutlej,  like  some 
sea  monster,  basking  upon  its  bosom. 

The  Nangaparbat  section  of  the  Himalayan  range 
affords  the  most  magnificent  snow  scene  in  existence. 
It  is  thus  described  by  a  witness :  "  Below  the  ob- 
server is  a  precipice  falling  sheer  sixteen  thousand 
feet.  Before  him  lie  the  Nangaparbat  Mountains — a 
mass  of  glaciers,  snow-fields,  ice-cliffs  and  jagged 
needles  for  its  whole  twenty-four  thousand  feet  of 
vertical  measurement." 

The  flora  of  the  Himalayas  is  in  general  of  semi- 
tropical  species,  the  tree-fern,  magnolia  and  rhodo- 
dendron—  which  here  attain  an  enormous  size  — 
being  particularly  conspicuous.  The  raontanic  forests 
consist  of  an  abundant  aggregation  of  trees  of  various 
kinds,  interspersed  with  graceful  grasses  and  flowery 


6  INDIyV. 

vcji^otatioii  in  a  variety  of  beautiful  forms.  Many  of 
tlu'  trees,  sueh  as  the  oak,  cedar,  pine,  deodar  and 
box,  would  have  a  commercial  value  if,  as  is  for- 
tuuately  not  tlie  case,  Nature  had  provided  any  outlet 
for  them.  As  it  is,  they  afford  shelter  and  shade  to 
the  wild  goat  and  sheep,  the  bison  and  the  musk-ox, 
tiie  leopard  and  the  bear.  However,  the  sal,  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  Indian  timber  trees,  grows  plen- 
tifully among  the  foothills  of  the  Himalayan  system. 

The  valley  of  the  Ganges  is  extremely  low,  and 
comprises  large  areas  which  are  only  a  few  feet  above 
sea  level.  The  river  is  constantly  changing  its  course, 
with  a  southward  trend,  leaving  extensive  stretches 
of  unproductive  marsh  or  sand  upon  the  sites  of  its 
former  beds.  The  Punjab,  as  far  as  any  physical 
demarcation  is  concerned,  is  an  extension  of  the  plain 
of  the  Ganges,  although  it  attains  a  considerably 
greater  elevation  by  easy  and  imperceptible  gradients. 

Though  it  has  none  of  the  grandeur  of  the  hill  dis- 
tricts, this  region  is  not  lacking  in  beauty.  It  abounds 
in  color  pictures,  made  up  of  "  clumps  of  waving  and 
delicate  bamboo,  tamarinds,  huge  banyans  and  slender 
palms;  cottages,  half  hidden  by  the  large-leafed 
gourds  and  overshadowed  by  the  gigantic  leaves  of 
the  plantain,  all  alive  with  vast  flocks  of  the  most 
brilliant  birds."  It  is  a  fertile  region,  bountifully 
watered  by  the  sacred  river  and  its  tributaries. 
Pulses,  millets,  sugar-cane,  indigo  and  opium  are  the 
principal  vegetable  products  of  the  Ganges  Valley  and 


INDIA  IN  OUTLINE.  7 

the  Punjab,  while  tea  and  tobacco  grow  under  the 
protecting  shelter  of  the  hills.  The  country  is  densely 
populated.  It  is  intersected  by  railway  lines,  and 
splendid  macadamized  roads  make  facile  connection 
between  its  towns  and  villages. 

The  elevations  in  the  interior  are  for  the  most  part 
plateaus,  unlike  the  ridges  of  the  great  boundary 
ranges.  The  Vindhyas  have  been  aptly  described  as 
"a  confused  jumble  of  forest,  ridges,  peaks,  cultivated 
valleys  and  broad,  high  plains."  The  Eastern  and 
Western  Ghiits  skirt  the  coast  of  the  peninsula 
proper  on  either  side.  Forest,  precipice  and  defile  go 
to  make  up  scenes  that  many  opine  to  be  the  most 
picturesque  in  all  India. 

The  entire  extent  of  India  is  singularly  devoid  of 
lakes ;  but  two  of  the  principal,  Kolair  and  Chilka, 
are  to  be  found  near  the  coast  of  Madras. 

The  rivers  of  southern  India  are  insignificant  on 
all  counts,  as  compared  with  those  of  the  north.  The 
Godavari  and  Kistna  empty  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
whilst  the  Nerbudda  and  Tapti  run  to  the  Gulf  of 
Cambay,  in  the  opposite  direction. 

There  are  no  mountains  of  importance  in  the 
peninsular  section  of  the  country ;  but  the  Neilgherry 
hills  are  iuteresting  on  account  of  being  the  retreat 
of  some  aboriginal  tribes,  whose  villages  are  accessible 
to  the  traveler.  The  vegetable  productions  of  this 
region,  with  the  exception  of  opium,  include  those  of 
the  northern  division  ;  in  addition,  oil  seeds  are  largely 


8  INDIA. 

cultivated,  and  cinchona  and  coffee  are  produced  at  the 
onil  of  the  iHMiinsula. 

On  the  whole,  the  sphere  iucluded  in  our  imaginary 
sub-triangle  is  much  less  attractive  and  interesting 
than  the  upper  portion  of  India. 

The  climate  of  Hindustan  is  not,  under  favorable 
conditions  of  living,  inimical  to  the  health  of  Kuro- 
jK^ans.  It  is  true  that  the  heat  upon  the  plains  fre- 
quently registers  one  himdred  and  ten  degrees  in  the 
shade,  but  eflfectivc  precautions  against  harm,  and 
even  discomfort,  from  it  are  practicable.  The  "  hot 
weather  "  lasts  from  the  beginning  of  April  to  about 
the  middle  of  June,  when  the  rains  set  in  ;  the  latter 
season  is  even  more  intolerable  than  the  summer,  on 
account  of  the  intense  humidity,  coupled  with  a  high 
temperature.  November  ushers  in  the  "  cold  weather," 
a  season  of  four  months,  during  w'hich  the  climate 
somewhat  resembles  the  English  autumn,  and  is 
extremely  enjoyable. 

British  India  is  said  to  harbor  over  five  hundred 
different  kinds  of  mammals,  about  seventeen  hundred 
varieties  of  birds,  and  upwards  of  five  hundred 
reptiles.  The  first  include  the  lion,  tiger,  leopard, 
bear,  elephant,  buffalo,  nilghai,  boar,  rhinoceros, 
wild  ass,  wolf,  hyena,  jackal,  antelope,  deer,  and 
other  animals  too  numerous  to  mention.  Monkeys 
are  as  much  in  evidence  everywhere  as  sparrows  in 
America. 

The  most  notable  of  the  birds  are  the  vulture,  the 


Tree  Ferns,  Neilg-herry  Hills 


INDIA  IN  OUTLINE.  9 

adjutant  and  the  peacock,  and  of  the  reptiles  the 
crocodile  and  the  python. 

The  flora  of  India  is  exceedingly  extensive,  and  in- 
cludes almost  all  the  plants  to  be  found  in  the  tropical 
and  semi-tropical  regions.  The  sacred  pipul,  or  fig 
tree,  and  the  banyan  deserve  especial  mention.  The 
latter  attains  immense  dimensions,  and  its  extension  is 
apparently  limitless.  One  of  these  monsters  of  vege- 
table growth  is  said  to  have  sheltered  an  army  of 
seven  thousand  men  long  ago,  and  year  by  year  it 
adds  to  its  size  by  a  process  peculiarly  its  own.  Its 
branches  drop  aerial  roots,  which,  reaching  the  ground, 
take  hold  and  stiffen,  gradually  assuming  the  propor- 
tions and  functions  of  auxiliary  trunks ;  these,  in 
their  turn,  produce  branches  upon  the  outer  side, 
which  eject  similar  embryo  stems,  and  so  on  ad 
infinitum. 

In  an  area  exceeding  1,500,000  square  miles  (in- 
clusive of  Burma  and  Ceylon,  which  are  portions  of 
British  India)  is  a  ix)pulation  of  288,000,000,  of 
which  150,000  are  natives  of  Great  Britain,  and  no 
more  than  half  that  number  soldiers.  Of  this  vast 
aggregation  nearly  208,000,000  profess  the  Brahmanic 
faith  ;  upwards  of  57,000,000  are  Muhammadans ; 
9,000,000  are  Animists,  who  believe  that  animals  pos- 
sess souls,  and  that  the  functions  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom are  due  to  spiritual  forces  and  not  to  chemical 
action  ;  the  Buddhists  account  for  7,000,000,  and  the 
kindred   sect,  the   Jains,  for  1  500,000 ;    the   Sikhs 


10  INDIA. 

iiuiiiIht  2,000,000,  and  the  C'liristians  something 
more,  while  there  are  about  100,000  followers  of 
Zoroaster. 

Thus  one-sixth  of  the  human  species,  comprising 
many  races,  speaking  twenty  languages,  varying  in 
physi(jue,  in  customs  and  in  religion,  are  controlled  by 
a  jK'ople  dwelling  thirteen  thousand  miles  distant. 
That  this  allegiance  is  not  maintained  l)y  the  mailed 
hand  must  be  patent  to  him  who  knows  aught  of  the 
Rajput  or  Maratha,  the  Sikh  or  Gurkha.  The 
loyalty  of  the  natives  is  emphasized  by  the  constant 
presence  of  hostile  tribes  uj)()n  the  mountain  borders, 
by  the  fact  that  they  have  eagerly  fought  Britain's 
battles  abroad,  and  have  time  and  again  suppressed 
political  disaffection  in  their  midst.  Nor  is  this  a 
condition  posterior  to  the  great  uprising  of  1857,  as 
many  suppose.  The  Sepoy  Rebellion,  in  the  light  of 
sober  investigation,  loses  much  of  its  sinister  signifi- 
cance. There  is  an  element  of  childishness  in  the 
Hindu,  and  a  touch  of  the  tiger  in  the  Muhammadan. 
The  imagination  of  one,  and  the  fanaticism  of  the 
other,  had  been  aroused  by  long  and  subtle  processes, 
and  fed  unchecked — unheeded,  indeed — by  their 
rulers,  until  the  flames  of  mutiny  burst  forth.  The 
natives  call  those  the  years  of  "  the  great  madness  " — 
aye,  so  did  they  who  took  part  in  the  revolt.  It  was 
followed  l>y  childlike  repentance  on  the  part  of  the 
Hindu,  and  on  that  of  the  Muhammadan  by  the  re- 
sixjctful  loyalty  of  the  brave  man,  while  they  who. 


INDIA  IN  OUTLINE.  H 

like  the  Sikh,  honored  their  salt  were  bound  by 
double  ties  to  the  domiuant  race. 

The  great  deterrent  to  the  progress  of  the  country, 
the  cause  of  many  of  its  calamities,  but  also  the  source 
of  some  of  its  advantages,  is  caste.  This  curious,  and 
to  the  Western  mind  never  wholly  understandable, 
institution  was  probably  in  existence  when  the  Ish- 
maelites  traded  between  India  and  Egypt.  The  most 
ancient  portion  of  the  Vedas  alludes  to  four  great 
classes  or  Varnas  of  the  Hindu  people ;  these  were 
the  Brclhmans  or  priests,  the  Kshattriyas  or  soldiers, 
the  Vaisyas  or  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  the  Sudras  or 
traders  and  menials,  in  the  order  of  their  importance. 

While  this  broad  classification  exists  to-day,  inva- 
sion, intermarriage  and  extension  of  industries  has  led 
to  the  creation  of  a  large  number  of  subdivisions,  and 
indeed,  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century  before 
Christ,  the  laws  of  Manu  recognized  several  offshoots 
from  the  original  castes. 

The  faith  of  these  numerous  septs  centres  in  a 
triune  godhead,  but  the  Hindu  Pantheon  includes  a 
host  of  inferior  deities.  The  great  triad  consists  of 
Brahma,  the  creator  and  the  supreme;  Vishnu,  the 
preserver;  and  Siva,  the  destroyer.  Tliese  two  last 
have  been  time  and  again  Avatar ,  or  incarnate,  and 
hence  the  imagination  of  their  worshipers  has  given 
to  them  a  variety  of  tangible  forms  to  symbolize 
powers  and  qualities  auxiliary  to  their  prime  functions. 
Although  the  Brahraanical  religion   has  a  decidedly 


12  INDIA. 

t^jiiiitiial  side,  the  devotions  of  tlie  majority  of  Hindus 
are  restricted  to  its  external  phases  and  ceremonial 
observances. 

The  Buddhist  doctrine,  which  inculcates  a  philos- 
ophy rather  than  a  religion,  had  at  one  time  a  very 
large  following,  and  in  the  reign  of  King  Asoka,  who 
was  converted  to  the  sect  in  tiie  year  244  B.C.,  it  bid 
fair  to  supplant  Briihmanism  in  India.  The  older 
faith  prevailed,  however,  and  the  disciples  of  Gau- 
tama have  long  since  lost  their  hold  upon  the  conti- 
nent, although  they  are  still  numerous  in  Ceylon, 
where  some  of  the  best  specimens  of  their  sacred 
architecture  may  be  found.  The  small  sect  of  Jains 
is  virtually  all  that  remains  of  Buddhism  in  India 
proper.  This  is,  perhaps,  to  be  regretted ;  for  the 
code  of  Gautama  afforded  a  good,  and  in  many  respects 
Christian-like,  theory  for  the  conduct  of  life,  and 
"  substituted  a  religion  of  emotion  and  sympathy  for 
one  of  ceremonial  and  dogma."  In  this  regard  the 
two  great  religions  of  ancient  India  were  not  dis- 
similar from  the  conflicting  doctrines  which  rent  Jeru- 
salem at  the  inception  of  our  era. 

The  comparatively  modern  sect  of  Sikhs  was 
founded  among  the  Hindus  of  the  Punjab  by  Niinak 
Shah  toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
Sikh  religion  is  a  politico-military  system.  The  most 
divine  object  recognized  by  its  adherents  is  the  Granth, 
or  holy  book.  The  Sikh  denounces  idolatry,  but  is  tole- 
rant of  other  creeds,  and  takes  no  cognizance  of  caste. 


INDIA  IN  OUTLINE.  13 

India  is  essentially  an  agricultnral  country,  about 
sixty  per  cent,  of  the  population  deriving  their  liveli- 
hood directly  from  the  tillage  of  the  soil.  Under 
such  circumstances  drought,  with  its  fearful  resultant, 
famine,  must  necessarily  affect  a  large  proportion  of 
the  people.  The  efforts  of  the  British  Government  to 
eradicate  or  ameliorate  these  constantly  recurring 
evils  have  been  stupendous.  The  irrigation  system 
has  been  wrought  under  tremendous  difficulties,  and 
is  continually  being  extended.  The  great  Ganges 
Canal,  with  its  ramifications,  comprises  over  three 
thousand  miles  of  distributai'v  lines,  and  waters  eight 
hundred  thousand  acres.  At  one  point  in  its  course 
it  is  carried  across  a  river  three  hundred  yards  broad, 
and  thence  for  three  miles  along  an  embankment 
thirty  feet  high.  This  is  the  finest  work  of  its  kind 
extant,  although  the  Sirhind  Canal  is  even  more  exten- 
sive. In  addition  to  these  should  be  mentioned  the 
irrigation  works  at  the  deltas  of  the  Godavari,  the 
Kistna,  the  Mahiinadi  and  the  Cauvery,  with  which 
there  is  nothing  to  compare.  Further  protection 
against  famine  is  secured  by  artificial  lakes,  tanks  and 
wells,  and,  as  auxiliary  to  all  these,  road  construction 
is  in  perpetual  progress. 

Indian  art  in  its  various  forms  is  famous  the  world 
over.  We  shall  have  occasion  to  notice  this,  as  well 
as  the  architecture  of  the  coinitry,  in  detail,  when 
treating  of  particular  localities.  It  may,  however,  be 
stated  here  that  the  excellence  of  handicraft  attained 


14  INDIA. 

l)y  the  Ilimlu  workman  is  largely  clue  to  heredity, 
and  the  same  cause,  uo  doubt,  accounts  for  a  certain 
lack  of  individual  originality.  Since  occupation  and 
caste  are  coincident,  the  son  has  no  choice  but  to 
adopt  the  following  of  his  father,  to  which  he  is 
indeed  b<»rn.  Hence  the  workman  of  to-day  may  be 
said  to  exhibit  the  accumulated  skill  and  deftness  of 
many  generations.  These  qualities  are  especially  dis- 
played in  the  production  of  pottery  and  jewelry,  in 
carving  wood  and  chasing  metals,  in  dyeing,  weaving 
and  embroidering.  The  Government  has  established 
several  museums  and  schools  of  art,  Mith  the  intent 
to  encourage  these  industries ;  but  the  result  is  not  of 
an  entirely  satisfactory  character.  Acquaintance  with 
Western  specimens  and  designs  has  in  many  instances 
prompted  the  native  to  neglect  his  own  classical  models 
for  the  sake  of  copying  inferior  modern  productions. 

The  principal  political  divisions  of  India  are  the 
three  Presidencies,  Bengal,  Bombay  and  Madras;  the 
Northwest  Provinces  and  Oudh ;  the  Central  Prov- 
inces ;  the  Punjab ;  Upper  and  Lower  Burma ; 
Assam  and  Berar.  In  addition,  there  are  six  quasi- 
independent  States,  governed  by  their  hereditary 
rulers,  assisted  by  British  Residents,  who  are  in  some 
instances  practically  curators.  These  "  native  States," 
as  they  are  called,  comprise  one-third  of  the  entire 
coimtry.  Their  heads  are  permitted  to  maintain 
armed  forces,  but  may  not  employ  them  in  any  man- 
ner other  than  display.     AVhile   it   is  the  policy  of 


INDIA   IN  OUTLINE.  ]5 

the  British  Government  to  allow  these  chiefs  all  the 
semblance  of  independence  possible,  in  reality  their 
powers  and  responsibility  are  considerably  restricted, 
and  they  are  not  permitted  to  enter  into  any  political 
relations  with  other  States.  The  heads  of  the  divisions 
directly  under  British  Government  are  amenable  to 
the  direction  and  control  of  the  Viceroy-in-Council. 
Previous  to  the  date  of  the  ^lutiny  the  Governor- 
General  of  India  had  practically  unlimited  power, 
and  was  answerable  only  to  the  Directors  of  the  East 
India  Company  in  England.  With  the  annulment  of 
the  Company's  charter,  in  1858,  a  new  system  of  gov- 
ernment was  inaugurated,  and,  with  slight  modifica- 
tions, obtains  at  the  present  time.  The  Viceroy  is 
a})pointed  by  the  Crown  for  a  term  of  five  years.  He 
is  assisted  by  the  Executive  Council,  a  sort  of  Cabinet, 
whose  members  divide  among  them  the  responsibility 
for  the  management  of  the  different  departments  of 
the  State ;  the  Legislative  Council,  which  includes  the 
former  body  and,  besides,  certain  officials  chosen  by 
the  Viceroy,  and  nominated  representatives,  native  as 
well  as  British.  The  Presidencies  of  Bombay  and 
Madras  have  similar  administrative  systems,  with  a 
Governor-General  at  the  head  of  each.  The  less  im- 
jjortant  provinces  are  ruled  by  a  lieutenant-governor 
or  high-commissioner  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner. 
While  the  culminating  point  in  the  government  of 
each  of  these  political  divisions  is  the  Viceroy-in- 
Council,  the  basis  and  administrative  unit  is  the  col- 


]G  INDIA. 

k'ctor,  nia^i.strato,  or  deputy-commissioner  in  charge 
of  one  of  the  many  districts  of  which  each  is  made  up. 

The  system  of  hmd  tenure  varies  to  suit  the  pecu- 
liar requirements  of  different  parts  of  the  country.  It 
would  be  difficult,  even  though  space  permitted,  to 
explain  the  several  methods  in  force,  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  reader  unconversant  with  the  history  and 
present  conditions  of  India.  Suffice  to  say,  that  under 
the  British  rule,  while  all  classes  are  treated  equitably, 
the  rayat,  or  peasant,  is  especially  safeguarded  in  his 
rights,  and  secured  in  the  profit  of  his  toil.  Whereas 
in  former  years,  under  the  native  rule,  the  zamindar 
might  tax  the  small  land-holder  to  whatever  extent 
he  pleased — and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  seldom  left  him 
more  than  a  bare  subsistence — to-day  the  heaviest 
assessment  made  by  the  Government  seldom  exceeds 
one  dollar  per  acre. 

The  many  nationalities  of  the  country  admit  of 
broad  classification  into  Hindus,  Moslems  and  abo- 
rigines. 

Tradition  tells  of  two  ancient  empires,  which  em- 
braced the  provinces  of  Lahore,  Agra,  Oudh  and 
Allahabad,  and  were  ruled  over  by  two  families,  styled 
the  children  of  the  Sun  and  of  the  Moon,  whose 
respective  capitals  were  Ayodhya  and  Pratishthana, 
the  modern  Oudh  and  Vitora.  It  is  probable  that 
the  nether  country  was  a  mass  of  forest  and  jungle, 
sparsely  ])eopled  by  tribes  in  a  primitive  state,  who 
had  been  driven  from    the    north   by  the  inroad   of 


INDIA  IN  OUTLINE.  ]7 

the  hordes  from  CeDtral  Asia,  who,  settling  in  the 
Gangetic  belt,  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  Hindu 
nation,  and  gave  incipiency  to  its  civilization.  The 
first  invasion,  to  which  no  date  can  be  assigned,  has 
been  followed  by  the  incursions  of  Scythians,  Greeks, 
Persians,  Arabs,  Mughals,  Afghans  and  Europeans,  so 
that  this  fair  land  has  been  from  prehistoric  times 
the  theatre  of  bloodshed,  rapine  and  tyranny — this 
especially  in  its  northern  portion. 

In  these  early  conflicts  the  Hindus  generally  appear 
to  have  been  incapable  of  effective  resistance  to  the 
onslaught  of  tribes  from  less  enervating  climes,  and 
the  successiv^e  waves  of  fierce  invasion  swept  over 
them  with  little  check. 

It  is  a  story  of  thrilling  interest,  replete  with 
romance,  telling  of  noble  deeds  and  dastard  treachery; 
of  lion-hearted  men  and  lovely  women  ;  of  kingdoms 
lost  in  a  day,  and  dynasties  upsprung  like  mushrooms 
in  a  night.  Withal  a  setting  of  gorgeous  scenery, 
under  a  vertical  sun,  and  for  accessories  jewels  beyond 
count  and  trappings  beyond  compare,  rich  stuffs  and 
rare  dyes,  the  caparisoned  elephant  and  the  stately 
stallion. 


Vol.  1.— 2 


CHAPTER  II. 


LEGENDARY    INDIA. 


In  the  remote  past  the  upper  portion  of  the 
country  now  known  as  India  was  peopled  by  an 
Aryan  race,  which  had  immigrated  from  the  table- 
land of  Central  Asia.  This  tract  north  of  the 
X^iudhya  Mountains  constitutes  Hindustan  proper. 
It  was  divided  into  a  number  of  small  kingdoms 
under  the  rule  of  independent  nljas  or  maharajas,  the 
latter  term  signifying  "  great  rajiis/'  having  reference 
to  the  exceptional  extent  of  their  territory.  Of  these, 
the  most  powerful  was  the  ]\Iaharaja  of  Hastinapur, 
whose  capital  was  situated  about  sixty-five  miles  to 
the  northeast  of  modern  Delhi,  upon  a  site  which  may 
be  identified  at  this  day. 

The  chief  occupation  of  the  petty  princes  of  that 
time,  and  indeed  for  centuries  afterwards,  was  fighting. 
In  addition  to  conflicts  with  the  aborigines,  they  car- 
ried on  perpetual  skirmishes  among  tlieraselves — in 
fact,  these  enconnters  partook  of  the  character  of 
pastime,  and  established  cnstom  frequently  aflPorded  a 
casus  belli,  when  no  ill  feeling  existed  between  the 
parties   to   the   strife.     For   instance,  the  raja,  who 

18 


LEGENDAKY  INDIA.  19 

would  many  the  daughter  of  another,  must  needs 
fight  and  conquer  the  father,  or  be  branded  as  a 
coward.  Again,  when  a  short  period  of  peace  began 
to  pall  upon  a  chieftain,  he  might  loose  a  branded 
horse  from  his  stud  to  wander  where  it  pleased  un- 
checked. It  was  the  business  of  the  owner  to  follow 
the  beast,  and  to  give  battle  to  any  raja  into  whose 
dominion  it  had  roamed.  These  occasions  were  not 
wars  of  acquisition,  but  merely  competitive  military 
exercises,  which,  however,  were  conducted  with  all 
the  vigor  and  eiFect  of  more  serious  campaigns. 

At  a  date  approximate  to  1500  B.C.  Hastinapur 
was  governed  by  Mahdraja  Santanu,  a  direct  descend- 
ant of  the  national  hero  Bharata,  who  was  said  to 
have  ruled  over  all  India  at  an  earlier  period.  In 
his  old  age  Santanu  became  enamored  of  the  daughter 
of  a  neighboring  potentate,  and  expressed  a  desire  to 
marry  her.  To  this  proposition  the  father  of  the  girl 
agreed  only  upon  the  condition  that  Bhishma,  the  sole 
son  of  the  King  of  Hastinapur,  should  renounce  all 
claim  to  succession  and  vow  never  to  marry.  This 
the  young  prince  not  only  readily  agreed  to,  for  the 
sake  of  his  father,  but  in  later  years  became  the  faith- 
ful guardian  of  the  Maharaja's  second  son  and  of  the 
children  of  the  latter.  The  ancient  Hindu  chronicles 
recount  other  similar  instances  of  remarkable  filial 
sacrifice,  which  are  in  striking  contrast  with  the  con- 
duct of  many  princes  under  the  Muhammadan  and 
Mughal  dynasties. 


'20  INDIA. 

Ot"  the  two  grandsons  of  Siintunu,  Dhritarashtra, 
the  elder,  was  set  aside  ou  account  of  his  being  blind, 
and  his  brother  Piindu  elevated  to  the  throne.  After 
a  brief  reign  lYmdu  died,  leaving  three  sons  by  Kunti 
and  two  sous  by  Madri,  whereupon  a  contest  arose  be- 
tween the  widows  as  to  who  should  have  the  honor  of 
committing  sati.  The  story  is  repeated  by  Didorus 
Sieulus,  the  Greek  historian,  and  is  the  first  mention 
of  the  ceremony  extant.  Dhritarashtra,  despite  his 
affliction,  was  now  accepted  by  the  people  of  Hastiua- 
})ur  as  their  ruler.  Meanwhile  his  nephews  were  ap- 
proaching a  vigorous  manhood.  The  blind  Mahilraja 
had  several  sons,  of  whom  only  two,  however,  seem 
to  have  figured  in  history.  These  were  Duryodhana 
and  Duhsasana.  The  cousins  grew  up  together  at  the 
royal  residence  under  the  guardianship  of  the  ever- 
faithful  Bhishma,  who  had  by  this  time  reached  a 
venerable  old  age. 

The  sons  of  the  reigning  monarch  were  styled 
the  Kauravas,  and  the  sons  of  Pundu  were  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  Pandavas.  The  question  of 
succession  created  early  jealousy  between  the  young 
princes,  which  found  vent  in  murderous  acts  during 
the  lifetime  of  the  INIaharaja.  The  Pandavas,  and 
particularly  Bhima  and  Arjuna,  appear  to  have  been 
courageous,  strong  and  skilled  in  the  use  of  the 
weapons  of  war — qualities  which  the  Kauravas  either 
lacked  or  possessed  in  an  inferior  degree.  The 
strength  of  the  Kauravas  lay  in  their  superior  Intel- 


LEGENDARY  INDIA.  21 

lects,  which,  coupled  with  unscrupulous  cunning,  made 
them  formidable  opponents. 

At  length  the  advanced  age  and  physical  decline  of 
the  Maharaja  made  it  necessary,  according  to  custom, 
to  appoint  a  yuva-raja,  or  regent,  who  was  also  the 
acknowledged  successor  to  the  raj.  The  first  ap- 
pointment of  the  blind  king  was  one  of  his  nephews, 
but  such  a  violent  storm  of  protest  arose  from  the 
Kauravas  and  their  adherents  that,  in  order  to  avoid 
a  civil  war,  the  Maharaja  rescinded  his  decision,  and 
banished  the  Pandavas  to  Varanavata,  a  city  on  the 
frontier  of  the  Aryan  settlements,  and  upon  whose 
site  the  modern  Allahabiid  stands. 

Duryodhana  was  installed  in  the  office  of  yuva-raja 
upon  the  departure  of  the  Pandavas,  who,  although 
they  might  have  offered  effectual  resistance  to  the 
harsh  mandate  of  the  Maharaja,  refrained  even  from 
remonstrance.  This,  one  of  many  instances  mentioned 
in  the  early  story  of  the  Hindus  of  extreme  venera- 
tion for  the  head  of  the  family  and  strict  compliance 
with  his  wishes,  reminds  us  of  the  similar  attitude  of 
the  Israelites  towards  their  patriarchs. 

The  adventures  of  the  five  sons  of  Paudu  during 
their  exile,  as  recited  in  the  semi-mythical  legends 
of  their  descendants,  are  both  wonderful  and  interest- 
ing. It  must  suffice,  however,  to  mention  the  only 
incident  which  had  a  direct  bearing  upon  history. 

The  Swayamvara  was  a  betrothal  festival.  It  was 
the  occasion  of  contests  of  strength  and  skill  between 


22  INDIA. 

the  young  Rajputs,  the  prize  being  the  hand  of  a  raja's 
tlauglitor.  The  approaching  event  was  widely  heralded 
among  the  various  rajadoms,  and  attracted  champions 
from  every  direction.  Thus  the  resident  princes  of 
Hastinapur  and  the  Pandavas  met,  after  the  lapse  of 
years,  at  the  Swayamvara  of  Draupadi,  the  daughter 
of  the  Raja  of  Ranch  a  ia^  who  was  deemed  the  loveliest 
damsel  in  the  world.  The  hand  of  this  maiden  was 
not  to  be  lightly  won.  The  man  who  would  aspire  to 
it  was  required  to  perform  a  feat  of  extreme  difficulty. 
A  golden  fisli  was  set  up,  with  a  constantly  revolving 
quoit  between  it  and  the  contestant,  who  was  required 
to  string  an  enormous  bow  and  shoot  an  arrow  through 
the  quoit  into  the  eye  of  the  fish.  One  after  another 
the  ambitious  rajas  tried,  and  failed  to  accomplish 
the  task,  few  indeed  succeeding  in  bending  the  bow. 
At  last  Arjuna,  the  son  of  Piindu,  stepped  forward, 
and,  handling  the  weapon  with  ease,  sent  the  shaft 
true  to  the  mark  on  the  first  essay.  Draupadi  imme- 
diately threw  a  garland  about  his  neck  as  a  token  of 
consent,  and  was  led  away  the  bride  of  a  Pandava. 
This  alliance  with  the  powerful  Rajii  of  Panchala  at 
once  made  the  Pandavas  men  to  be  seriously  reck- 
oned with,  and  caused  grave  apprehension  at  Hastina- 
pur. Fearing  an  invasion  of  the  territory  by  his 
nephews,  the  old  INIaharaja  voluntarily  proposed  to 
divide  the  kingdom  between  the  two  families.  This 
was  done,  but  not  in  an  equitable  manner ;  for,  while 
the   capital   and  environments  were  assigned  to  the 


LEGENDARY  INDIA.  23 

Kauravas,  the  Panda vas  were  given  a  portion  of  the 
kingdom  covered  with  jungle  and  occupied  bj  a  hos- 
tile Scythic  tribe  known  as  the  Nagas,  or  snake 
worshipers.  Having  driven  the  Nagas  from  the 
newly-acquired  domain,  the  Pandavas  cleared  large 
tracts,  and  erected  a  fort,  the  remains  of  which  the 
Hindus  point  out  in  the  neighborliood  of  Delhi  to-day. 
AVith  an  influx  of  Siidras,  who  tilled  the  land,  the 
riij  of  Khandava-prastha  rapidly  grew  into  a  consider- 
able State.  When  the  Pandavas  had  become  suffi- 
ciently established  in  their  dominion  to  be  recognized 
as  a  power,  they  celebrated  the  Rajasuya.  This  was 
a  festival  which  had  for  its  purpose  the  assertion  of 
the  independence  of  the  raja  by  whom  it  was 
held.  All  his  fellow-chiefs  were  bidden  to  the 
feast,  and  the  presence  of  each  was  accepted  as 
a  token  of  his  acknowledgment  of  the  rightful- 
ness of  the  claim  set  up  by  the  host.  We  are 
told  that  all  the  riijas,  including  the  sons  of 
Dhritarashtra,  answered  the  summons  to  the  Raja- 
suya of  the  Pandavas. 

The  wily  Kauravas,  however,  this  evidence  of 
goodwill  notwithstanding,  had  relaxed  not  one  iota  in 
their  hatred  of  their  cousins,  and  came  to  the  celebra- 
tion prepared  to  carry  into  execution  a  treacherous 
plot  for  their  undoing.  Most  of  the  Riij  puts  or 
Kshattriyas — that  is,  the  soldier  caste — were  addicted 
to  gambling,  and  the  Pandavas  were  by  no  means 
free  of  the  prevailing  vice.     It  had  been  arranged 


24  INDIA. 

that  when  the  games  of  cliance,  which  were  and  are 
at  this  day  a  never-failinj^  feature  of  a  Rajput  festival, 
took  phico,  Duryodhana  should  pit  himself  against 
Yudhishthira,  the  eldest  of  the  Pandavas;  but  the 
dice  were  to  be  thr(>^\•n  by  Sakuni,  an  uncle  of  the 
former,  who  was  an  adept  in  the  use  of  loaded  dice. 
The  Pandava  readily  fell  into  the  trap.  First  he 
staked  money  and  all  that  represented  wealth  in  the 
r;ij.  These  were  lost,  and  then  the  kingdom  itself. 
Next  he  risked  the  liberty  of  his  brothers,  commenc- 
ing with  the  youngest,  and  each  was  lost.  At  last  he 
staked  himself,  with  the  same  result,  and  flung  the 
dice  from  him,  M'ith  the  thought  that  nothing  more 
remained ;  but  the  Kaurav'a  reminded  him  that  he 
still  had  a  valuable  stake  in  Draupadi.  The  miser- 
able man  accepted  the  suggestion,  and  upon  a  last 
throw  lost  his  wife,  with  all  beside,  to  the  cold-blooded 
scoundrel,  Duryodhana.^ 

The  ensuing  scene  is  dramatic  beyond  description. 
The  chieftains  stand  aghast  as  it  is  borne  upon  their 
minds  that  the  Pandavas  and  the  fair  daughter  of  the 
house  of  Panchala  are  the  slaves  of  Duryodhana. 
Disgust  mingles  with  dismay,  but  none  will  interfere, 
for  the  code  of  the  Rajputs  requires  the  strictest  ful- 
fillment of  a  debt  of  honor,  and  the  fraud  which  has 
been  perpetrated  is  not  suspected.  The  imhappy 
princess  is  dragged  by  her  long  black  hair  to  the  feet 

'  The  story  conveys  the  impression  that  Draupadi  was  the  com- 
mon wife  of  all  the  brothers. 


LEGENDAEY  INDIA.  25 

of  her  future  master,  and  ordered  to  perform  a  menial 
service.  The  fearful  vow  of  Bhmia  to  slay  the 
Kauravas  and  drink  their  blood,  and  the  counter  vow 
of  Draupadi  to  leave  her  hair  unkempt  until  the 
pledge  has  been  fulfilled,  almost  precipitate  a  massacre, 
when  the  blind  and  tottering  Maharaja  is  led  upon 
the  scene.  He  decides  that  the  possessions  of  the 
Pandavas  are  rightfully  forfeit — that  they  shall  not 
be  slaves,  but  must  endure  another  exile  for  a  term  of 
twelve  years. 

The  period  passes  In  strange  and  often  impossible 
adventure,  and  then  we  find  the  Pandavas  occupying 
positions  of  importance  at  the  court  of  a  powerful 
raja,  by  whom  they  are  held  in  high  esteem.  At 
length  the  Pandavas  were  strong  enough  to  declare 
war  upon  the  Kauravas.  The  story  of  the  conflict 
is  ghastly  in  its  details.  The  opposing  forces  con- 
fronted one  the  other  upon  a  plain,  and,  as  a  prelimi- 
nary to  action,  reviled  their  opponents  in  terms 
expressible  only  in  an  Oriental  language.  Then  in 
furious  anger  they  rushed  upon  each  other.  The 
battle  raged  by  day,  and  at  night  men  fought  with 
torch  in  one  hand  and  sword  in  the  other ;  and  so  for 
eighteen  days.  Warrior  met  warrior  in  single  com- 
bat, and  thus  Bhima  slew  Duhsasana — he  who  had 
dragged  the  Princess  Draupadi  from  her  apartments 
into  the  gambling  hall — and,  mortally  wounding  Dur- 
yodhana,  left  him  to  die  in  the  solitude  of  the  jungle. 
So  was  the  vow  of  Bhima  fulfilled,  and,  with    his 


26  INDIA. 

fhiiicrs  (liipjMiig  the  blood  of  her  insulters,  he  ticti  up 
the  hiiir  of  the  princess. 

The  Kauravas  and  their  followers  having  been 
{•oiiipletoly  annihilated  in  this  bloody  engagement,  the 
IMiulavas  were  enabled  to  take  possession  of  the  riij 
of  Hastinapur  without  opposition.  There  they 
founded  a  great  dynasty,  and  ultimately  became  the 
rulers  of  the  whole  of  India.  All  these  things  and 
many  more  are  set  forth  in  the  great  Sanskrit  epic, 
the  Mahabharata.  How  much  of  the  story  is  fiction, 
how  much  fact,  or  how  much  an  admixture  of  both,  it 
is  impossible  to  determine,  and  difficult  even  to  con- 
jecture. 

The  Raniciyana,  a  later  heroic  poem  in  the  Sans- 
krit tongue,  tells  the  story  of  the  evolution  of  the 
Hindu  nation  at  another  stage.  Its  scenes  are  laid  in 
localities  other  than  those  mentioned  in  the  Mahabha- 
rata,  and  its  actors  are  carried  through  the  peninsula 
and  into  Lanka,  the  ancient  name  for  Ceylon. 

The  plot  of  the  Ramtiyana  turns  upon  the  jealousies 
of  two  of  the  wives  of  the  Maharaja  of  Ayodhya  (the 
modern  Oudh)  and  the  rivalry  of  their  sons,  Rama 
and  Bharata.  AVe  have  a  Swayamvara,  at  which 
Rama  is  victorious  and  secures  the  prize,  in  the  per- 
son of  the  lovely  Sita,  daughter  of  a  neighboring 
raja.  Then  the  appointment  of  a  yuva-raja  creates 
the  usual  trouble,  and  results  in  the  exile  of  Rama, 
who  goes  into  the  wilderness  with  his  wife.  The  re- 
course to  banishment  as  a  preventive   of  fratricidal 


LEGENDARY  INDIA.  27 

conflicts,  and  as  a  punitive  measure,  which  is  several 
times  mentioned  in  these  two  Hindu  epics,  became  an 
established  custom,  and  in  modern  times  was  attended 
by  funereal  ceremonies.  The  Rajput  under  sentence 
of  exile  was  clothed  in  black  and  mounted  upon  a 
black  horse  with  sable  trappings.  He  was  then  con- 
ducted to  the  frontier  of  the  raj,  and  commanded  to 
absent  himself  for  a  certain  period,  or  never  to  return. 
Rama  betook  himself  to  Prayaga,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  on  the  spot  where  stands  the 
present  city  of  Allahabitd,  the  place  in  fact  to  which 
the  Pandavas  were  deported.  Shortly  afterwards  the 
Maharaja  died,  and  Bhurata,  with  incredible  gener- 
osity, set  out  to  find  his  elder  brother,  and  to  invite 
him  to  assume  the  chieftainship  of  the  raj.  This 
Rama  refused  to  do  before  the  completion  of  the  four- 
teen years  of  exile  to  which  his  dead  father  had 
sentenced  him. 

Then  follow  a  series  of  the  most  marvelous 
adventures,  which,  notwithstanding  their  mythical 
aspect,  are  of  some  value  to  the  historian  as  afford- 
ing clues  to  actual  events.  From  Prayaga  to  the 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  the  country  was  wilder- 
ness and  desert.  Through  this  extensive  tract  Rtlmd. 
journeyed,  fighting  with  cannibals,  giants  and  un- 
imaginable creatures.  His  wife  is  abducted  by  one 
of  these  monsters,  and  carried  to  his  strongliold  in 
Lanka.  With  the  aid  of  Hanuman  (the  same  who 
finds  a  place  in  the  Hindu  Pantheon  in  the  form  of  an 


28  INDIA. 

ape)  and  his  nnnv  of  monkeys,  Ramii  iuvadcs  the 
islaml,  and  a  war  cn.snes  which  for  marvelous  inci- 
donts  rivals  the  "  great  war  of  the  Bharata."  Sitii  is 
recovered,  and,  the  term  of  exile  having  in  the  mean- 
time expired,  Ramd  returns  with  his  wife  to  Ayodhya, 
and  enters  upon  a  long  reign  of  splendid  conquest. 


CHAPTER  Iir. 

INDIA   UNDER   HINDU   RULE. 

The  early  history  of  India,  like  that  of  most 
nations,  is  little  more  than  a  recital  of  its  wars.  A 
state  of  perfect  peace  was  unknown  to  the  country 
until  after  the  domination  of  the  English  had  been 
established.  The  traditions  of  the  people  abound  in 
stories  of  intestine  struggles,  and  their  earliest  authen- 
tic records  commence  with  the  expedition  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  Thenceforward  to  modern  times 
we  have,  with  scarce  an  interval,  a  long  succession 
of  invasions,  wars  and  rebellions,  which  kept  the  land 
in  a  state  of  constant  turmoil,  and  retarded  the 
progress  of  civilization. 

There  is  good  ground  for  believing  that  the 
Scythians  made  numerous  invasions  of  the  country, 
and  more  than  one  writer  credits  them  with  having 
penetrated  to  the  Deccan ;  but  the  information  we 
have  upon  the  subject  is  very  vague,  and  useless  for 
the  purposes  of  historical  review.  It  is,  liowever, 
interesting  to  note  that  the  Scythic  tribe  of  Tukshaks, 
who  were  snake-worshipers,  have  left  traces  of  their 
occupation  in  the  word  ndgd,  a  serpent,  which,  or  its 

29 


30  INDIA. 

ahhreviation  nd(/,  is  of  fivqnont  occurrence  in  the 
annals  of  Central  India.  Wilfortl  assigns  a  date  as 
earlv  as  2000  B.C.  to  one  of  these  invasions  of  the 
Scythians. 

Oghnz  Khan,  an  ancestor  of  the  renowned  Changiz, 
is  supposed  to  have  conquered  all  the  northern 
portion  of  India  at  some  time  between  1750  and 
1600  B.C.  This  would  be  before  the  Kuru-Piindava 
war,  of  which  the  Mahabharata  treats. 

No  date  can  be  assigned  to  the  early  invasion  of 
the  Persians,  and  indeed  the  authenticity  of  the  event 
rests  upon  very  slender  evidence.  The  Persian  his- 
torians give  details  of  extensive  conquests  achieved 
by  Cyrus,  Darius  and  Xerxes  in  Hindustan,  and 
Herodotus  states  that  in  the  time  of  Darius  India 
paid  a  heavy  annual  tribute  to  Persia.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  former  country,  however,  frequently 
asserted  to  the  followers  of  Alexander,  who  came  by 
way  of  Persia,  that  they  had  never  before  been 
invaded  from  that  direction.  It  is  probable  that  the 
incursions  of  the  Persians  did  not  extend  far  into  the 
interior,  and  were  of  a  character  which  left  little 
impression  upon  the  country. 

The  sixth  century  before  Christ  witnessed  an  event 
of  great  importance  to  the  country,  the  effects  of 
whi(;h,  however,  did  not  reach  full  fruition  until 
several  centuries  afterwards. 

Sakya  Muni,  Gautama  Bhudda,  or  Siddhartha, 
was   the    son   of   the    Raja    of    Kapila,   a    district 


INDIA  UNDER  HINDU  RULE.  31 

lying  between  Xepal  and  Sikkim.  His  early  years 
were  passed  in  ease  and  luxury.  He  had  a  wife  and 
child,  and  was  the  heir  to  the  domain  of  his  father. 
These  things  and  all  else  he  abandoned  for  a  life  of 
austere  seclusion  and  contemplation,  in  the  hope  of 
finding  some  means  of  ameliorating  the  condition  of 
humanity,  and  avoiding  the  "  ills  that  flesh  is  heir 
to."  The  doctrine  of  Gautama  Bhudda  involved  the 
old  dogma  of  metempsychosis,  but  it  was  a  great 
improvement  upon  the  existent  religion,  which  relied 
upon  the  excitation  of  fear  for  its  effect.  In  substance 
the  Bhudda's  teaching  was  that  every  one  should 
endeavor  to  secure  for  himself  a  happier  existence  in 
his  next  reincarnation  by  living  upon  the  highest 
possible  plane  in  his  present  life.  He  also  maintained 
that  it  was  possible  to  escape,  or  to  curtail,  the  cycle 
of  transmigrations  of  the  soul  by  adopting  the  life 
of  a  religious  recluse,  and  rooting  out  every  emotion, 
and  sundering  every  worldly  tie.  The  goal  to  be 
ultimately  attained  was  Xirvana,  a  condition  of 
annihilation. 

Buddhism  is  "  the  embodiment  of  the  eternal  verity 
that  as  a  man  sows  he  will  reap,  associated  with  the 
personal  duties  of  mastery  over  self  and  kindness  to 
all  men." 

Gautama  conmnenced  the  promulgation  of  his  doc- 
trine, which  formed  the  basis  of  the  Bhuddist  faith, 
at  a  period  of  internecine  conflicts  and  family  quarrels 
— a  most  unpromising  time  lor  the  dissemination  of  a 


32  INDIA. 

biimanitariau  theory  of  conduct.  That  the  reformer's 
efforts  were  not  without  great  and  beneficial  after-effect 
liistury  proves  to  us.  Centuries  later  the  people  of 
Hindustan  iiad  good  reason  to  bless  the  name  of 
Bhudda,  when  one  of  their  most  bloodthirsty  kingnS, 
a  fratricide  and  the  wanton  slayer  of  thousands  of  his 
subjects,  embraced  Bhuddism,  and  became  as  mild 
and  peaceful  a  monarch  as  he  had  formerly  been 
cruel  and  reckless. 

Somewhat  more  than  a  century  after  the  death  of 
Sakya  Muni,  Alexander  the  Great,  having  completed 
the  conquest  of  Persia,  entered  Hindustan  with  an 
army  of  one  hundred  thousand  soldiers,  about  forty 
thousand  of  whom  were  veteran  Greeks.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that,  but  for  the  dissensions 
among  the  native  rulers,  the  Macedonian  might  have 
been  repulsed,  and  his  expedition  rendered  abortive  at 
the  outset.  As  it  was,  he  found  immediate  allies  in 
some  of  the  princes,  who  hoped  by  his  assistance  to 
consummate  vendettas  and  private  feuds,  without 
regard  to  patriotic  considerations. 

The  first  check  received  by  Alexander  was  at  the 
passage  of  the  Jehlam,  where  he  was  confronted  by 
P(n-us  the  elder.  Porus,  who  displayed  a  fine  courage 
ill  the  affair,  had  the  advantage  of  position ;  but  his 
army  numbered  no  more  than  forty  thousand  men 
and  two  hundred  elephants.  When  Alexander  by 
superior  tactics  had  succeeded  in  effecting  the  passage 
of  the  river,  the  odds  were  tremendously  in  his  favor, 


INDIA  UNDER  HINDU  RULE.  33 

for  although  he  only  brought  eleven  thousand  of  his 
Macedonians  into  action,  the  Hindus  were  taken 
entirely  by  surprise  and,  indeed,  were  not  under  arms 
when  the  attack  commenced.  The  first  to  respond  to 
the  onslaught  was  the  son  of  Porus,  at  the  head  of 
two  thousand  men,  who,  together  with  their  leader, 
were  annihilated.  They  had,  however,  effected  the 
purpose  of  giving  the  main  body  time  to  form,  and 
Porus  himself,  coming  to  the  front  with  his  cavalry, 
broke  the  Macedonian  centre  time  and  again.  The 
native  foot  and  horse  fouoht  with  a  degree  of  valor 
and  skill  which  surprised  Alexander,  and  filled  him 
with  admiration.  Victory  seemed  to  be  with  the 
Hindus,  when  there  occurred  one  of  those  apparently 
casual  incidents  which  frecpiently  turn  the  tide  of 
battle  and  shape  the  course  of  history.  The  elephants 
of  Porus,  in  which  he  placed  his  greatest  dependence, 
probably  rendered  restive  by  the  preceding  thunder- 
storm^ under  cover  of  which  Alexander  had  crossed 
the  Jehlam,  broke  from  the  control  of  their  mahouts, 
and,  rushing  madly  through  the  ranks,  trampled  down 
the  infmtry  in  every  direction,  and  precipitated  a 
I'out.  Porus  surrendered  to  the  victor,  and,  with  the 
childlike  impetuosity  which  was  one  of  his  char- 
acteristics, Alexander  the  Great  gave  the  defeated 
king  his  liberty  and  restored  liis  kingdom,  with  tlu; 
addition  of  several  minor  States  whicli  luid  fallen  to 
the  Macedonian  in  his  forward  march.  The  only 
concession  demanded  by  Alexander  of  his  former  foe 
Vol.  I.— 3 


34  INDIA. 

was  tlio  privik\<i^e  of  erecting  two  cities  in  the  latter's 
(lonuiin.  One  of  tlie.se  Mas  bnilt  in  memory  of  a 
favorite  dog,  Peritas,  and  tlie  other  was  named  after 
the  celebrated  charger  Bucephalus,  which  died  of 
fatigue  and  wounds  in  this  campaign. 

Pursuing  his  coiu'se  toward  the  interior,  Alexander 
reached  the  Ravi,  one  of  the  "  five  rivers,"  to  find 
the  consolidated  forces  of  three  powerful  tribes  con- 
fronting him  upon  its  further  bank.  The  entire  army 
of  Alexander  was  brought  to  bear  against  this  opposi- 
tion, with  the  result  that  the  Hindus  were  defeated 
and  scattered ;  the  city  of  Sangjila  was  taken,  and 
seventeen  thousand  of  its  inhabitants  were  put  to  the 
sword,  while  seventy  thousand  were  taken  captive. 
The  further  progress  of  the  conqueror  towards  the 
Ganges  was  marked  by  the  most  cruel  barbarities. 
His  army  appears  to  have  been  permitted  to  pillage 
and  massacre  without  restraint,  and  neither  age  nor 
sex  were  respected. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Sutlej  Alexander  was  finally 
brought  to  a  halt  by  the  refusal  of  his  troops  to 
})roceed.  Commands  and  appeals  were  unavailing. 
AVearied  with  years  of  constant  campaigning,  and 
anxious  to  enjoy  their  spoils,  the  troops  persisted  in 
the  determination  to  return,  and  the  commander  was 
forced  to  forego  his  dream  of  the  conquest  of  all 
India  and  the  foundation  of  a  new  empire. 

The  invasion  of  Alexander  was  little  more  than  a 
marauding  expedition,  and  left  no  permanent  impres- 


INDIA  UNDER  HINDU  RULE.  35 

sion  upon  the  country.  The  most  important  results 
of  this  expedition  consist  in  the  accounts  of  the 
country,  its  people  and  customs,  which  have  come 
down  to  us  through  the  Greeks,  and  particularly  the 
descriptions  of  Megasthenes,  the  ambassador  to  the 
court  of  Sandrokottos,  or  Chundra-Gupta,  the  Emperor 
of  Hindustan.  From  these  accounts  we  learn  that 
the  country  traversed  by  the  army  of  Alexander, 
which  to-day  we  term  the  Punjab,  was  well  settled  ; 
that  towns  and  villages  of  considerable  size  were 
numerous  ;  that  the  soil  was  bountiful,  and  that  the 
people  generally  were  in  a  prosperous  condition. 
These  observers  note  the  existence  of  the  rite  of  sati, 
and  appear  to  have  been  much  impressed  with  the 
condition  of  women  in  the  country.  In  some  tribes 
the  girls  were  put  up  as  prizes  in  athletic  contests, 
which  was  probably  a  survival  of  the  Swayamvara ; 
in  others  they  were  sold  in  the  bazaars,  like  ordinary 
commodities.  The  Kathaei  elected  for  their  king 
the  most  handsome  man  among  them,  and,  like 
the  Spartans,  reared  none  but  healthy  and  robust 
children. 

The  Brahmans,  whom  the  Greeks  called  Gymno- 
sophists,  or  "  naked  philosophers,"  on  accouut  of  the 
fact  that  they  wore  no  clothing  whatever,  were  held 
in  the  greatest  honor  and  esteem.  They  acted  as 
counselors  to  the  rulers,  as  teachers  and  as  seers  ; 
others  devoted  their  lives  to  ascetic  practices,  some, 
like  the  Stylites,  exposing  their  bodies  to  the  weather 


36  INDIA. 

aud  the  attacks  of  venomous  insects,  while  maintaining 
a  rigid  attitude  for  days  at  a  time. 

One  of  the  Hindu  princes  who  sought  the  aid  of 
Alexander  in  a  personal  quarrel  was  he  whom  the 
Greeks  styled  Sandrokottos,  and  the  natives  Chundra- 
Gupta.  The  negotiations  were  brought  to  an  abrupt 
close  by  an  insult  which  the  conqueror  conceived 
himself  to  have  been  subjected  to  by  the  Hindu,  who 
only  saved  his  life  by  a  precipitate  flight.  After  the 
departure  of  Alexander  from  India,  Chundra-Gupta 
secured  the  throne  of  ]\Iaghada.  He  then  drove  the 
Greeks  out  of  the  country,  and  established  an  empire 
over  the  whole  extent  of  Hindustan.  Sandrokottos 
thus  became  so  powerful  a  sovereign  that  Seleukos, 
the  Greek  King  of  Persia,  courted  an  alliance  with 
him,  and  to  that  end  sent  the  ambassador  Megasthenes 
to  the  court  at  Pali-bothra,  or  Pali-piitra,  the  modern 
Patna.  The  embassy  resulted  in  the  marriage  of  the 
Hindu  emperor  to  the  Greek  princess,  the  daughter 
of  Seleukos. 

From  the  memoirs  of  Megasthenes  we  learn  more 
than  from  any  other  source  of  the  condition  of  ancient 
Hindustan.  He  tells  us  that  the  city  of  Pali-bothra 
extended  for  ten  miles  along  the  river  bank,  and  was 
surrounded  by  a  high  wooden  wall,  loopholed  for 
archers.  The  palace  was  an  imposing  edifice  even  to 
the  Greek,  who  may  be  supposed  to  have  been 
familiar  with  the  stately  structures  of  his  native  land. 
The  army  numbered  four  hundred  thousand  men,  who 


INDIA  UNDER  HINDU  RULE.  37 

were  armed  with  bows,  swords  and  spears.  Ele- 
phants, horses  and  chariots  were  included  in  the 
military  establishment.  The  ambassador  mentions 
festal  processions,  in  which  strange  animals  and  birds, 
vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  jewels  and  costly  apparel, 
figured. 

The  Maharaja  sometimes  dispensed  justice  publicly, 
and  at  others  officiated  at  the  sacrificial  ceremonies. 

The  magistracy  seems  to  have  been  efficient  and 
well  designed.  Officials  were  appointed  to  superin- 
tend the  manufactures ;  to  oversee  sales  and  ex- 
changes ;  to  register  births  and  deaths ;  to  collect 
taxes,  and  to  exercise  a  friendly  surveillance  over 
foreigners.  Occupation  was  hereditary,  as  it  is  now 
to  a  great  extent,  and  was  regulated  by  law.  The 
husbandmen  were  considered  to  be  servants  of  the 
State,  the  price  of  their  labor  being  exemption  from 
military  service.  The  product  of  the  soil  was  dis- 
tributed from  the  royal  granaries  to  the  officials, 
soldiers,  priests  and  artisans,  the  latter  alone  being 
required  to  pay  for  what  they  received.  A  tax  of 
ten  per  cent,  was  levied  upon  all  manufactures. 

Asoka,  the  grandson  of  Chundra-Gupta,  left  his 
mark  upon  the  history  of  Hindustan,  and  made  a 
lasting  impression  upon  the  people.  At  the  time  of 
his  father's  death  he  was  an  exile.  He  happened  to 
return  at  the  critical  moment,  and,  murdering  all  his 
brothers,  made  his  way  to  the  throne.  He  engaged  in 
several  successful  wars,  and  extended  his  kingdom  by 


38  INDIA. 

conqiieriug  A%li{inistan.  Asoka  seems  to  liave  liad 
an  unnatural  taste  for  blood.  He  is  credited  with 
several  unprovoked  massacres  and  the  wanton  destruc- 
tion of  an  enormous  quantity  of  animal  life.  After 
his  conversion  to  Buddiiisiu  he  underwent  a  surprising 
but  apparently  genuine  and  })ermanent  change  of 
character.  His  subsequent  edicts,  which,  sculptured 
on  rock  and  stone,  may  be  found  all  over  the  northern 
part  of  India  at  this  day,  inculcated  filial  duty,  utili- 
tarian conduct,  temperance  in  all  things  and  gentleness 
toward  all  living  creatures.  The  slaughter  of  animals, 
whether  for  food  or  sacrifice,  was  forbidden,  and 
provision  was  made  for  the  care  of  old,  crippled  and 
sick  brutes.  Teachers  were  appointed  to  acquaint  the 
people  with  the  doctrine  of  Dharma,  and,  while  the 
Brahman  religion  was  tolerated  and  its  priests  and 
devotees  strictly  protected.  Buddhism  became  the 
main  profession  of  the  country. 

Subsequent  to  the  reign  of  Asoka  India  suffered 
several  invasions  by  the  Graeko-Bactrians,  whose 
occupation  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  country  is 
attested  to-day  by  the  presence  of  Greek  sculptures 
and  ruins,  and  Greek  images  and  superscriptions  upon 
old  coins.  In  the  last  century  before  the  Christian 
era  these  latest  comers  Avere  ousted  by  the  Indo- 
Scythians,  w'ho  founded  a  dynasty  about  which  little 
is  known.  Toward  the  close  of  the  first  century,  the 
Hindu  rajas  rose  against  the  Indo-Scythian  rulers. 
In  this  revolt  the  natives  were  aided  by  a  people 


Bath-Khana,  Delhi 


Hi!lf%' 


^*^ 


'  ?'''  "iH'^'l^r'^'^Tl^^^ 


INDIA   UNDEK  HINDU  RULE.  39 

known  as  the  Guptas,  who  some  believe  to  have  been 
descendants  of  the  Graeko-Bactrians.  A  great  battle 
was  fought  at  Kahror,  resulting  in  the  utter  defeat  of 
the  Indo-Scythiaus,  who  thereafter  disappear  from 
history.  The  Guptas  then  assumed  control  of  the 
country,  and  exercised  dominion  until  they  were 
superseded  by  the  Yalabhi  rajiis  early  in  the  fourth 
century. 

As  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  Asoka  to  propagate 
Buddhism,  that  religion  had  taken  root  in  China,  and 
about  this  time  Buddhist  monks  from  that  count ly 
began  to  appear  in  India  on  pilgrimages  to  the  sacred 
places  associated  with  the  memory  of  Gautama.  One 
of  these  enthusiasts,  Fah  Hian  by  name,  spent  three 
years  at  Piili-putra,  and  has  left  an  account  of  his 
observations.  Somewhat  more  than  two  hundred 
years  later,  or  about  640  a.d.,  another  member  of  the 
Chinese  monastic  order,  named  Hiouen-Thsang,  visited 
the  country.  His  description  of  Buddhist  India  is 
the  best  we  have,  and  gives  us  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
condition  of  tiie  times. 

He  describes  the  people  as  truthful,  honest  and 
amiable  ;  the  administration  as  mild  and  equitable. 
Capital  punishment  was  never  inflicted,  but  certain 
crimes  (particularly  those  of  disobedience  to  parents 
and  lying)  were  punishable  by  exile  or  mutilation. 
The  majority  of  the  penalties,  however,  took  the  form 
of  fines. 

Kanauj  was  at  that  time  the  capital  of  an  empire 


40  INDIA. 

which  onibraeod  the  whole  of  Hindustan,  and  was 
made  up  of  a  number  of  tributary  rajs.  The 
Emperor  was  named  Siihiditya,  and  bore  the  title  of 
Maharaja  Adhiraj,  or  ''  lord  paramount."  Saladitya 
was  a  Buddhist,  but  he  tolerated  Brahmanism  and  all 
other  religions. 

Each  fifth  year  was  the  occasion  of  an  extraordinary 
ceremony,  which  Ilioucu-Thsang  witnessed  and  has 
described.  All  the  rajas,  and  as  many  of  the 
commoners  as  could  be  present,  assembled  at  the  holy 
city  of  Prayiiga,  the  modern  Allahabad.  There  the 
entire  treasure  of  the  empire  was  distributed  to  the 
needy,  without  regard  to  race  or  religion.  Finally  the 
Emperor  stripped  himself  of  his  robes  and  jewels,  and 
appeared  before  the  people  in  the  garb  of  a  beggar,  as 
an  intimation  that  he  had  disposed  of  everything  that 
was  W'ithin  his  power  of  gift.  Those  were  halcyon 
days  indeed  compared  with  what  were  to  follow  under 
the  Moslem  and  Mughal  rulers. 

Hiouen-Thsang  made  a  lengthy  sojourn  at  the 
monastery  of  Nalanda,  the  ruins  of  which,  covering  an 
area  sixteen  hundred  by  four  hundred  feet,  may  still  be 
seen  at  Baragaon,  near  Gaya.  The  place  was,  in  fact,  a 
huge  university,  which  harbored  ten  thousand  monks 
and  students,  w'hose  wants  were  supplied  at  the 
expense  of  the  State.  The  buildings  were  palatial 
in  size  and  appearance.  In  addition  to  six  long  four- 
storied  blocks,  there  were  one  hundred  lecture-rooms, 
the  whole  situated  in  the  most  picturesque  and  attrac- 


INDIA  UNDER  HINDU  RULE.  41 

tive    surroundings.      The    studies    of    the    inmates 
embraced  all  religions  and  all  sciences. 

For  purposes  of  historical  reference  it  is  convenient 
to  divide  the  country  into  two  portions.  Hindustan 
proper  is  the  country  lying  to  the  north  of  the 
Vindhya  Mountains ;  the  lower  section  is  termed  the 
Peninsula.  The  Hindu  rule  did  not  extend  over  the 
peninsula,  nor  did  the  earlier  invaders  efiPect  any  set- 
tlement in  it.  The  country  was  occupied,  however,  by 
aboriginal  tribes,  and  the  Dravidians  had  found  an 
asylum  at  the  southernmost  end  of  the  peninsula, 
where  they  had  attained  a  high  state  of  civilization 
long  before  the  establishment  of  the  Aryan  race  in  the 
country. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

INDIA    UXDER    MUHAMMADAN    RULE. 

The  earliest  conqueror  of  Hindustan  of  any 
considerable  renown  was  the  Turkl,  Mahmud  of 
Ghazni.  This  warrior,  who  eventually  subdued  all 
Persia  and  a  large  portion  of  India,  was  the  son  of 
Subuktigin,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  who  elevated  himself 
from  the  saddle  of  a  trooper  to  the  throne  of  Ghazni, 
and  extended  his  realm  to  the  Indus.  Mahmud  of 
Ghazni  made  not  less  than  twelve  invasions  of 
Hindustan,  commencing  in  the  year  1000  A.D.,  with 
the  avowed  purpose  of  extirpating  idolatry  from  the 
country.  It  is  needless  to  recount  the  story  of  each 
of  the  several  expeditions,  in  which  Mahmud  appears 
to  have  been  almost  invariably  victorious,  wath  the 
never-failing  sequence  of  enormous  slaughter  and 
fabulous  plunder.  The  expedition  against  Somnath 
in  1026,  which  some  historians  reckon  as  the  sixteenth 
invasion  of  Mahmud,  is  typical  of  the  man  and  the 
times. 

The  temple  of  Somnath  in  Gujariit  was  the  seat  of 
a  god  much  esteemed  and  liberally  patronized  by  the 

42 


INDIA  UNDER  MUHAMMADAN  RULE.  43 

Hindus.  The  edifice  was  placed  upou  a  lofty  rock, 
situated  at  the  extremity  of  a  uarrovv  peninsula,  and 
almost  surrounded  by  the  sea.  The  priests  of 
Somnath  believed  the  position  to  be  impregnable,  to 
man,  and  a  sense  of  security,  begotten  of  peaceful 
experience  in  the  past,  led  them  to  utter  a  boastful 
declaration  to  tlie  effect  that  if  Mahmiid  ventured  to 
attack  them,  their  god  would  scatter  his  army  like 
chaff.  This  challenge,  reaching  the  ears  of  the 
Muhammadan  monarch,  determined  him  to  put  the 
matter  to  a  test.,  Starting  with  a  force  of  thirty 
thousand  horsemen,  which  swelled  as  he  advanced 
through  previously  conquered  territory,  Mahmud 
progressed  toward  his  destination,  leaving  a  trail  of 
fire  and  desolation  behind  him,  as  usual.  The  chief- 
tain Goga  Chohan,  who,  with  forty-five  sons  and  sixty 
nephews,  opposed  him,  was  defeated  and  the  entire 
family  slain. 

Somnath  was  obstinately  defended,  and  the  assaults 
of  the  attackers  repeatedly  repulsed ;  but  finally  the 
rock  was  carried  by  storm  and  the  defenders  put  to 
the  sword.  In  the  temple  was  found  a  lingam  fifteen 
feet  in  height,  which  the  priests  offered  to  ransom  at 
an  enormous  cost.  The  fanaticism  of  Mahmiid  seems 
to  have  exceeded  his  cupidity,  for  he  rejected  the 
proffered  bribe  with  the  exclamation,  "  I  came  to 
destroy  idols,  not  to  traffic  in  them !"  He  ordered 
his  men  to  demolish  the  image,  which  being  done 
revealed  a  hiddcu  recess  in  its  interior  contain iuir  a 


44  INDIA. 

larsxe  quantity  of  precious  stones  and  pearls.*  The 
gates  of  the  temple  were  carried  by  the  conqueror  to 
Ghazni,  where  they  remained  until  recovered,  at  the 
instigation  of  Lord  Elleuborough,  and  restored  to 
their  former  })lac'e.^ 

Mahmiid  of  Ghazni  died  in  1030,  and  for  the 
ensuing  century  and  a  half  Hindustan  appears  to 
have  enjoyed  immunity  from  invasion,  although  the 
intestine  quarrels  of  its  native  princes  abated  nothing. 
Meanwhile  the  Afghans  had  overthrown  the  Tiirki 
dynasty.  Muhammad  of  Ghor,  the  Pathan  ruler 
of  the  territory  which  had  been  held  by  Subuk- 
tigin  and  his  successors,  conceived  a  design  for  the 
subjugation  of  Hindustan,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century  marched  a  large  army  against  the 
Raja  of  Delhi.  This  expedition,  like  ipany  of  those 
preceding  it,  owed  its  success  to  the  internal  feuds 
which  distracted  the  country.  ]\[uhanimad  of  Ghor 
secured  the  active  co-operation  of  the  Maharaja  of 
Kauauj,  who  was  the  father-in-law  of  the  ruler  of 
Delhi.  The  latter  having  been  slain  and  his  raj 
annexed,  Muhammad  turned  his  arms  upon  his  recent 
ally,  Avhose  fitting  reward  for  treachery  was  the  loss 
of  his  life  and  kingdom. 

1  This  legend,  repeated  by  many  writers,  seems  to  rest  upon  the 
declaration  of  Firishta,  the  Persian  historian.  Some  modern  stu- 
dents of  Indian  history  deny  the  story  of  the  hidden  treasure  in  toto. 

2  The  sandalwood  gates,  brought  from  Ghazni  in  1842,  are  now 
generally  believed  to  be  at  best  but  a  copy  of  those  carried  away 
from  Somnath  eight  hundred  years  before. 


INDIA  UNDER  MUHAMMADAN  RULE.         45 

About  teu  years  later  Muhammad  was  assassinated, 
after  having  extended  his  conquests  in  India  consider- 
ably beyond  the  limits  attained  by  Mahmiid  of 
Gliazni. 

Muhammad  of  Ghor  left  no  Avorthy  successor,  and 
his  death  was  immediately  followed  by  a  partition  of 
the  Afo:han  dominions.  In  Hindustan  one  Kutab- 
ud-din,  who  had  been  Viceroy  under  Muliammad, 
proclaimed  himself  Sultan,  and  instituted  a  series  of 
wars  of  acquisition,  which  left  him  master  of  the 
country  as  far  as .  the  Brahmaputra.  His  triumphal 
tower,  known  as  the  Kutab  Miuiir,  is  a  familiar  land- 
mark in  the  vicinity  of  Delhi.  Kutab-ud-din  rose 
to  the  imperial  seat  from  the  station  of  a  slave,  and 
was  the  first  of  a  dynasty  which  is  described  as  that 
of  the  "  slave  kings."  His  immediate  successors  are 
hardly  worthy  of  mention. 

Ala-ud-din,  whose  uncle  mounted  the  throne  of 
Delhi  after  the  assassination  of  the  last  of  the  slave 
kings,  made  important  accessions  to  the  empire  by  the 
invasion  of  the  Deccan  and  the  subjugation  of  the 
Mariithas,  and  by  the  conquest  of  Rajputana,  whither 
the  Rajputs  from  the  northern  provinces  had  repaired 
after  their  defeats  bv  earlier  assailants.  The  sie<re  of 
Chitor,  an  incident  of  the  latter  campaign,  is  notice- 
able as  affording  an  illustration  of  the  fierce  spirit  of 
the  ancient  Hindu  caste  of  Kshattriyas,  or  warriors. 
It  being  evident,  after  a  protracted  defence,  that  the 
city  must  fall,  the  garrison  determined  to  perform 


4G  INDIA. 

joluir,  a  rite  wliich  li;ul  for  its  purpose  the  salvation 
of  the  Rajinit  houor  and  the  j)rcservation  of  the 
chastity  of  his  women.  A  number  of  pyres  were 
erected  throughout  the  city.  Upon  these  the  females 
cast  themselves,  and  were  committed  to  the  flames. 
The  men  then  rushed  upon  the  enemy,  and  perished 
sword  in  hand. 

The  entire  region  of  the  Deccan  was  divided  into 
petty  kingdoms,  in  much  the  same  manner  as  Hindu- 
stan. None  of  these,  separately  nor  in  coalition,  were 
able  to  cope  Avith  the  forces  sent  against  them  by  Ala- 
ud-din,  and  the  Muhammadans  had  no  difficulty  in 
effecting  a  permanent  footing.  In  the  year  1350  the 
army  of  the  Deccan  revolted,  and  set  up  an  independ- 
ent kingdom,  with  a  line  of  rulers  who  were  called 
the  Bahmaui  Sultans.  These  became  involved  in  a 
long  series  of  wars  with  the  Maharajas  of  Vijay- 
anagar,  a  kingdom  occupying  the  whole  of  the  penin- 
sula south  of  the  Kistna.  In  these  conflicts  the 
Muhammadans  maintained  the  upper  hand  until,  in 
1500,  the  Bahmani  Empire  was  dismembered,  and  its 
territory  divided  among  five  different  Sultans.  For 
awhile  the  Maharaj  was  able  to  withstand  the  Sultans, 
and  even  to  wage  aggressive  war  against  them 
individually.  In  1565  four  of  the  Sultans  of  the 
Deccan  formed  an  alliance  against  Ram  Rai,  the  ruler 
of  Vijayanagar,  whose  army  was  utterly  routed  and 
himself  slain  at  the  battle  of  Talikot.  The  country 
was  given   over   to  sword  and  fire,  and  its  capital 


INDIA  UNDER  MUHAMMADAN  RULE.         47 

reduced  to  ruins ;  but  the  Sultans  were  unable  to 
annex  or  completely  subdue  it,  owing  probably  to 
jealousy  and  distrust  of  each  other.  The  Empire  of 
A^ijayanagar  had  however  received  its  death-blow,  and 
its  glory  was  thenceforth  a  thing  of  the  past. 

Meanwhile  the  Tartar  hordes,  which  under  the 
famous  Changiz  Khiin  overran  Asia  and  the  eastern 
portion  of  Europe,  began  to  turn  their  attention  to 
India. 

Upon  the  death  of  Ala-ud-din,  in  1316,  a  Hindu 
revolt  occurred.  The  leader  of  the  uprising  was  a 
native,  who  had  been  converted  to  Islam.  Ou 
securing  the  throne,  his  first  act  was  to  slay  every 
male  of  the  royal  family.  His  followers  set  up  idols 
in  the  mosques  and  otherwise  desecrated  the  holy 
places  of  the  Muhamraadans.  At  the  end  of  six 
months  of  anarchy  and  disorder,  Delhi  was  retaken 
by  the  Tiirkiman  governor  of  the  Punjab,  who 
founded  the  Tughlak  dynasty  of  Sultans.  The  second 
of  this  line  of  rulers,  Muhanmiad  Tughlak,  was  a 
man  of  courage  and  energy,  but  lacking  in  intellectual 
qualities.  While  prosecuting  wars  in  the  south,  he 
exhausted  his  treasury  in  bribing  the  Mughals  to  cease 
their  depredations.  His  efforts  to  replenish  the  impe- 
rial exchequer  entailed  such  lieavy  exactions  nj)()ii  rich 
and  poor  alike  that  tlie  people  rose  in  rebellion.  Tliis 
afforded  a  pretext  for  allowing  the  army  to  plunder 
the  disaffected  districts,  and  thus  to  comjiensate  them- 
selves for  arrears  of  pay.     A  severe  famine  add(;d  to 


48  INDIA. 

tho  tribulation  of  the  masses.  To  relieve  the  pressing 
difficulties  of  his  situation,  the  Sultan  resorted  to  a 
measure  which  contributed  largely  to  the  downfall  of 
his  empire.  A  large  number  of  copper  tokens  were 
struck  off,  which  he  decreed  should  pass  current  as 
gold  coins.  With  this  base  money  he  raised  a  large 
army  for  the  invasion  of  China,  whence  it  never 
returned,  being  decisively  defeated,  with  great  slaugh- 
ter, by  the  Tibetans.  The  remnant  which  turned 
back  was  cut  up  by  wild  tribes  in  the  mountain 
passes  or  succumbed  to  the  rigors  of  the  unaccustomed 
climate.  Muhammad  Tughlak's  novel  system  of 
finance  was  not  acceptable  to  foreigners,  and  outside 
trade  naturally  stopped,  with  the  result  that  thousands 
who  depended  upon  it  were  ruined.  Soon  the  copper 
counters  began  to  flow  into  the  capital  for  redemption, 
but  there  was  neither  gold  nor  silver  to  exchange  for 
them.  Before  his  death,  Muhammad  Tughlak  saw 
the  disintegration  of  his  kingdom  set  in.  Bengal 
declared  its  independence,  the  Deccan  set  up  a  ruler 
of  its  own,  and  the  southern  provinces  ceased  to  pay 
tribute  and  foreswore  their  alle2:iance. 

Once  again  the  country  was  disrupted,  helpless  and 
at  the  mercy  of  any  invader.  The  opportunity  was 
eagerly  seized  by  the  Tartars,  who  under  Timilr  over- 
ran Hindustan,  committing  every  conceivable  atrocity. 
One  hundred  thousand  prisoners  were  slaughtered  in 
the  course  of  a  single  day.  Delhi  was  sacked,  and  an 
indiscriminate  massacre  of  the  inhabitants,  lasting  for 


INDIA  UNDER  MUHAMMADAN  RULE.  49 

five  days,  was  ordered.  Timur  retired  from  India 
laden  with  booty,  and  for  a  space  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  years  the  Tartars  seem  to  have  been  too 
busy  elsewhere  to  pay  any  but  cursory  attention  to 
India.  In  1524  Biibar,  a  direct  descendant  of  Timur, 
invaded  Hindustan,  at  the  invitation  of  some  of  the 
disaifected  princes.  At  the  time  the  imperial  throne 
at  Delhi  was  occupied  by  a  Pathan  or  Afghan 
monarch.  Him  Babar  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle, 
and,  assuming  the  crown,  became  the  first  of  the 
Mughal  dynasty  of  kings. 

A  few  years  earlier  the  Portuguese  had  eifected  a 
settlement  upon  the  Malabar  coast  at  Goa,  and  thus 
initiated  the  European  occupation  of  the  countiy. 

The  reigns  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Biibar 
were  eventful,  but  not  important  from  a  historical 
point  of  view.  They  were  constantly  engaged  in 
conflicts  with  the  Pathans  and  with  their  Hindu 
subjects. 

The  period  of  Akbar's  sovereignty  is  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  India.  This  poten- 
tate, who  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  singular 
genius  and  enlightenment,  succeeded  his  father  in 
1556,  when  only  finirtcen  years  of  age.  He  was, 
however,  fortunate  in  the  fact  that  his  guardian  was 
a  man  of  integrity  and  no  common  ability.  At  a 
very  early  age  Akbar  displayed  the  (pialities  which 
distinguished  him  throughout  his  reign  of  fifty  years. 
At  fourteen  he  had  served  his  apprenticeship  in  arms. 
Vol.  I.— 4 


50  INDIA. 

At  eighteen  he  resolutely  set  aside  his  guard ian,  to 
whom  he  generously  offered  any  post  he  might  ehoose 
in  the  kingdom.  He  then  set  about  the  task  of 
restoring  order  where  anarchy  and  dissension  had 
existed  for  two  hundred  years.  This  task  entailed 
years  of  war  against  Afghans,  independent  Sultans 
and  Hindus.  In  all  these  campaigns  Akbar  displayed 
skill,  energy  and  stern  resolve,  unsullied  by  cruelty  or 
vindictiveness.  This  extraordinary  man,  who,  unlike 
his  ancestors,  was  devoid  of  education  or  culture,  was 
no  less  accomplished  as  a  statesman  than  as  a  soldier. 
He  was  the  actual  founder  of  the  Mughal  Empire, 
which  he  established  and  consolidated  by  a  policy  of 
consummate  wisdom.  By  proclaiming  religious  equality 
he  deprived  the  dominant  race  of  its  chief  excuse  for 
plundering  and  down-treading  the  weaker  portion  of 
the  population.  By  intermarryiug  with  the  Rajjjut 
princes  he  not  only  secured  the  peacefulness  of  the 
most  turbulent  and  warlike  class  of  Hindus,  but  also 
secured  their  active  alliance,  which  proved  a  powerful 
aid  in  holding  in  check  his  Muhammadan  subjects. 
A  Rajput  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  the  Punjab, 
and  another  of  Bengal,  whilst  a  third  commanded  the 
army  employed  against  the  Afghans,  who  are  the 
hereditary  foes  of  the  Hindus.  Thus  by  maintaining 
Hindu  and  Muhammadan  armies  in  his  pay,  each 
under  commanders  of  the  same  race  and  faith  as  the 
rank  and  file,  he  was  enabled  to  secure  a  counter- 
balance which  made  for  peace  in  his  kingdom. 


INDIA  UNDER  MUHAMMADAN  EULE.  51 

Akbar  was  genuinely  solicitous  for  the  welfiire  of 
his  subjects,  and  iutrodnced  several  measures  of 
reform.  A  system  of  land  teiuire  was  established 
markedly  superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  which  had 
previously  existed.  In  deference  to  the  religious 
scruples  of  the  Hindus,  the  slaughter  of  cows  was 
prohibited.  The  use  of  wine  was  tolerated,  but 
drunkenness  was  severely  punished.  Sati  Avas  sup- 
pressed as  far  as  possible,  and  the  widows  of  Hindus 
were  allowed  to  re-marry.  Akbar  made  an  effort  to 
abolish  polygamy' among  the  Muhammadans,  in  which, 
however,  he  met  with  little  success.  A  restriction  was 
placed  upon  the  marriages  of  boys  and  girls  under  the 
ages  of  sixteen  and  fourteen  respectively. 

During  the  last  years  of  his  reign,  Akbar  subjugated 
Kashmir  and  Kabul,  and  conquered  the  hither  half 
of  the  Deccan.  He  died  in  1G05,  poisoned,  it  is  said, 
by  his  son  Jahangir. 

Jahangir  had  none  of  his  father's  good  qualities. 
He  was  cruel,  cowardly,  sottish  and  vindictive.  His 
eldest  son,  Khusru,  had  been  a  favorite  of  Akbar,  and 
on  that  account  the  father  seems  to  have  conceived  a 
hatred  for  him.  Immediately  after  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  Jahangir  caused  Khusru  to  be  placed  in 
confinement,  which  was  continued  with  mucii  harsh- 
ness for  many  years. 

During  his  entire  reign  Jahangir  was  under  the 
complete  influence  of  the  famous  Niir  Mahal,  or 
"  Light  of  the  Palace,"  whose  husband  he  had  caused 


52  INDIA. 

to  bo  murdered,  in  order  that  he  might  marry  her. 
The  intrigues  of  this  woman  caused  all  manner  of 
dissensions,  and  led  to  the  rebellious  of  the  Emperor's 
sons. 

The  reign  of  Jahiingir  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
fact  that  during  its  early  years  the  English  made 
their  first  efforts  to  secure  a  footing  in  the  country. 
An  ambassador — Sir  Thomas  Roe — was  sent  to  the 
court  of  the  Great  Mughal  by  James  I.  Roe  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  his  three-years'  sojourn  in  India. 
He  found  the  Emperor  a  pusillanimous  drunkard, 
weak  of  will  and  lacking  in  intellect.  The  coimtry 
had  seriously  deteriorated  since  the  death  of  Akbar, 
and  disturbances  of  various  kinds  were  constantly 
occurring. 

The  plottings  of  the  woman  Nur  Mahal  were 
destined  to  have  a  marked  effect  upon  the  course  of 
history.  By  pitting  first  one  and  then  another  of  the 
Emperor's  sons  against  the  rest,  she  hoped  to  further 
her  own  ambitious  aims.  The  immediate  result  was 
the  murder  of  Khusru  by  Shah  Jahan,  his  brother. 
The  latter  then  succeeded  in  making  his  father  a 
prisoner,  and  so  holding  him  for  some  time..  In  1627 
Jahangir  died  suddenly,  not  without  strong  suspicion 
of  having  been  poisoned  at  the  instigation  of  his  son, 
Shiih  Jahan.  In  order  to  preclude  the  possibility  of 
a  rival  claimant  to  the  throne  which  he  usurped.  Shah 
Jahan  ordered  the  slaughter  of  all  the  princes  of  the 
royal  house. 


INDIA  UNDER  MUHAMMADAN   RULE.  53 

Shah  Jahan  is  remembered  only  as  the  builder  of 
the  world-famed  Taj  Mahal,  the  founder  of  the 
present  city  of  Delhi,  and  the  constructor  of  the 
barbaric  Peacock  Throne.  He  had  four  sons,  who 
engaged  in  rebellion  against  him  and  in  a  fratricidal 
war  for  the  succession.  In  1658  Aurangzeb,  by  a 
series  of  crafty  and  unscrupulous  acts,  had  succeeded 
in  disposing  of  his  brothers  and  in  imprisoning  his 
father,  Avhom  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  he 
murdered  a  few  years  later, 

Aurangzeb  was  barely  seated  upon  the  throne 
before  his  serious  attention  was  claimed  to  the  con- 
dition of  affairs  in  the  Deccan,  the  northern  portion 
of  which  had  been  annexed  by  Akbar  and  held  by 
the  Mughals  thereafter.  For  some  long  time  the 
mountains  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  Western 
Ghats,  in  the  district  of  Konkan,  had  been  the  home 
of  a  tribe  of  freebooters,  who,  in  the  latter  years  of 
the  reign  of  Shah  Jahan,  had  made  serious  inroads  to 
the  territory  of  that  monarch.  This  tribe  was  des- 
tined to  develop  into  the  nation  of  Marathas,  and  to 
become  a  formidable  foe  to  the  Mughals.  Apart  from 
their  natural  Ishninelitish  proclivities,  the  Marathas 
entertained  the  racial  hatred  of  the  Hindus  for  their 
Muhammadan  conquerors — a  hatred  which  the  politic 
measures  of  Akbar  only  succeeded  in  counteracting 
without  suppressing. 

At  this  time  the  chieftainship  of  the  Marathas 
was  held  by  a  very  remarkable  man,  the  story  of 


54  INDIA. 

whose  career  is  full  of  romantic  incidents  and  events 
of  important  bearing  upon  the  history  of  that  and 
later  times.  Sivaji,  in  addition  to  the  craft,  resource 
and  daring  which  characterized  his  mountain  ancestors, 
Avas  endowed  with  the  qualities  which  go  to  make 
natural  rulers  of  men.  He  had  the  faculty  of 
fashioning  a  disciplined  army  out  of  raw  material,  and 
the  art  of  utilizing  tlie  force  thus  raised  to  the  best 
advantage.  Although  but  a  rude  barbarian,  he 
transformed  a  loose  and  turbulent  tribe  into  a 
powerful  nation,  and  founded  a  kingdom  with  a 
political  organization  superior  in  some  respects  to  that 
of  the  Mughals.  The  Maratha  chief  claimed  Riijput 
descent,  and  displayed  the  Rajput  traits  of  chivalry 
and  fearlessness. 

Sivaji  was  soon  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  sixty 
thousand  foot  and  horse,  admirably  adapted  to  the 
border  tactics  and  guerilla  warfare  in  which  it  was 
successfully  employed  throughout  the  reign  of 
Aurangzeb.  AVith  growing  strength  and  experience, 
the  Marathas  went  from  depredatory  expeditions  to 
w^ars  of  acquisition,  and  all  the  eiforts  of  the  Mughal 
Emperor  to  crush  the  young  power  in  the  Deccan 
were  futile.  In  1674  Sivaji  was  installed  as  Maharaja 
of  Bijapur,  and  a  few  years  later  he  had  established 
a  new  kingdom  in  the  lower  Karnatik,  which  was 
represented  in  later  times  by  the  riij  of  Tanjore. 
Sivaji  died  in  1680,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Sambaji.     Aurangzeb   paid   the  following   tribute  to 


INDIA  UNDER  MUHAMMADAN  RULE.  55 

the  memory  of  his  old  enemy :  "  He  was  indeed  a 
great  general,  and  the  only  one  who  had  the  magna- 
nimity to  found  a  new  kingdom,  wiiile  I  have  been 
endeavoring  to  destroy  the  ancient  sovereignties  of 
India." 

Sambaji  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  Great 
Mughal,  who  put  him  to  a  barbarous  death  and  held 
his  son  and  heir  captive ;  but  the  conquest  of  the 
Marathiis  Avas  as  difficult  of  consummation  as  ever. 
The  subsequent  consolidation  of  the  Maratha  power 
was  effected  under  the  Brahman  dynasty  of  Peshwiis, 
or  prime  ministers,  in  whom  the  actual,  though  not 
the  nominal,  authority  became  vested  as  an  hereditary 
right. 

The  reign  of  Auraugzeb  was  full  of  distraction, 
occasioned  by  his  harsh  persecution  of  the  Hindus, 
by  an  outbreak  in  his  Afghan  dominion,  and  by  the 
rebellion  of  his  son  Akbar,  At  the  time  of  his  death 
in  1707,  Aurangzeb  had,  by  the  pursuance  of  a  policy 
entirely  at  variance  with  the  measures  so  successfully 
adopted  by  his  great-grandfather,  disrupted  the 
elements  of  his  empire,  and  so  Aveakencd  it  that  the 
decline  of  the  Mughal  j)ower  may  be  marked  from  this 
time. 

The  demise  of  Aurangzeb  was  followed  by  the 
usual  fratricidal  war  wliich  distinguished  every 
Muffhal  succession  from  the  time  of  Akbar.  Bahiidur 
Shah  secured  the  throne  after  slaying  his  brothers  and 
nephews.     His  reign  has  no  important  bearing  upon 


66  INDIA. 

history,  but  is  noticeable  for  tlie  fact  tliat  tlie 
Sikhs,  who  had  given  trouble  (luring  the  reign  of 
Aurangzcb,  displayed  growing  power  in  the  time  of 
Bahadur  Shah,  and  eonipt'lled  hiiu  to  carry  on  a 
series  of  wars  against  them,  which  however  failed  in 
the  purpose  of  subduing  the  sect,  which  ultimately 
grow  into  a  nation  of  importance. 

The  Sikhs  wore  originally  a  religious  brotherhood, 
formed  in  the  latter  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  by 
one  Nanak  Shah.  Their  faith  was  based  on  a  com- 
bination of  the  tenets  of  the  most  liberal  Shiahs  and 
Hindus.  It  recognized  a  Supreme  Spirit  or  universal 
deity.  Implicit  obedience  to  the  Guru  or  "  teacher," 
and  his  successors,  was  a  distinguishing  characteristic 
of  the  sect.  The  mandates  of  the  Guru  were  believed 
to  be  divine  emanations,  and  never  failed  to  awaken  a 
high  pitch  of  fanatical  enthusiasm.  For  years  after 
the  death  of  Bahadur  Shah  the  Sikhs  continued  to  be 
a  thorn  in  the  sides  of  the  Mughals,  by  whom  they 
were  remorselessly  persecuted. 

Jahandur  Shah  and  Farrukh  Siyar  enjoyed  brief 
periods  of  sovereignty  after  Bahadur  Shah,  and  were 
followed  by  three  infant  monarchs,  the  first  two  of 
whom  survived  their  elevation  only  by  a  few  months, 
while  the  third  was  destined  to  occupy  the  tottering 
throne  of  the  Mughals,  as  Muhammad  Shah,  for  a 
})eriod  of  thirty  years. 

By  this  time  the  power  and  extent  of  the  Mughal 
Empire  had    become   so    much    curtailed    that    the 


INDIA  UNDER  MUHAMMADAN  EULR  57 

authority  of  its  rulers  beyond  the  capital  and  its 
immediate  vicinity  was  little  more  than  nominal. 
Under  the  Peshwas  the  Maratha  power  waxed 
stroniT  during  the  reis>;n  of  Muhammad  Shah.  That 
monarch  exercised  little  control  over  his  subordinates, 
who  gradually  built  up  semi-independent  kingdoms 
out  of  the  provinces  of  which  they  had  charge.  Thus 
Saadut  All  Khan,  a  Persian  and  Shiah,  who  was  Vice- 
roy of  Oudh,  paved  the  way  for  his  descendants,  who 
later  became  the  kings  of  that  territory ;  thus  Chin 
Kilich  Khiin,  a .  Turkiraan  and  a  Sunni,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Haidarabad. 
At  the  same  time  the  dominions  of  Baroda,  of  Sindhia 
and  Holkar  began  to  take  form  out  of  the  expanding 
territory  of  the  Maratlias.  Meanwhile  events  were 
transpiring  in  Persia  which  were  destined  to  have  the 
most  important  effect  upon  the  history  of  India. 

Nadir  Kuli,  a  man  of  extraordinary  character,  had 
raised  himself  from  the  grade  of  a  slave  to  that  of 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  virtual  ruler  of 
the  Persian  Empire.  He  was  a  consummate  politician 
and  a  general  without  a  peer  in  Asia.  He  subjugated 
the  Afghans,  carried  on  a  .successful  war  with  the 
Turks,  and  com})elled  Russia  to  restore  certain  terri- 
tory which  had  been  seized  by  Peter  the  Great.  Upon 
the  death  of  the  infant  sovereign  of  Persia,  Niidir 
usurped  the  throne  without  any  difficulty,  the  army 
being  devoted  to  him  and  the  people  proud  of  his 
achievements. 


68  INDIA. 

In  1737  Nadir  Sliah  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Mnghal 
Court.  With  incredible  imbecility  Muhammad  Shiili 
treated  the  overtures  of  the  Persian  with  scorn  and 
imprisoned  tiie  ambassadoi's.  The  result  was  a  dis- 
aster to  the  Mughal  Empire  which  shook  it  to  its  base, 
and  destroyed  forever  the  remaining  power  left  to  the 
dynasty  of  Babar.  Niidir  lost  no  time  in  invading 
the  country.  His  progress  was  practically  unimpeded 
until  he  reached  Kurnal,  about  sixty-five  miles  to  the 
north  of  Delhi.  Here  the  forces  of  the  Mughal  made 
a  weak  attempt  to  withstand  the  invader,  but  were 
ignominiously  defeated,  and  fled,  leaving  the  capital 
at  the  mercy  of  the  enraged  Persian. 

The  sack  of  Delhi  and  the  massacre  of  the  inhabit- 
ants is  an  event  without  parallel  in  all  history. 
Neither  age  nor  sex  stayed  the  hand  of  the  infuriated 
soldiery,  and  it  is  said  by  some  native  historians  that 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
perished  during  that  fearful  day  of  carnage.  In  jus- 
tice to  Nadir  it  should  be  stated  that,  although  he  was 
unrelenting  in  his  vengeance,  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  the  lives  of  the  inhabitants  were  in  no 
jeopardy  until  they  commenced  an  attack  upon  the 
Persians.  Nadir  remained  in  Delhi  for  fifty  eight 
days,  during  which  the  city  was  leisurely  but  thor- 
oughly plundered.  The  treasury  was  depleted  and 
the  palace  laid  bare,  the  celebrated  Peacock  Throne 
being  part  of  the  plunder  secured  from  it ;  the  wealth 
and  all  the  portable  possessions  of  the  nobles  were 


INDIA.  UNDER  MUHAMMADAN  RULE.  59 

seized,  and  the  heaviest  possible  contributions  were 
exacted  from  the  common  people.  The  total  value  of 
the  spoil  carried  away  by  the  Persian  monarch  has 
been  estimated  in  fabulous  figures.^  That  it  was 
enormous  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  he 
allowed  three  months'  bonus  pay  to  every  soldier  in 
his  army,  and  remitted  a  year's  taxation  throughout 
his  empire. 

The  Persian  invasion  gave  the  couj)  de  grace  to  the 
dying  Mughal  Empire,  and  opened  the  way  for  the 
extension  of  British  dominion  in  India. 

^  In  Mill's  History  of  British  India,  the  amount  of  booty  secured 
by  the  Persians  is  estimated  at  thirty-two  millions  of  pounds 
sterling. 


CHAPTER  V. 

INDIA   UNDER   BRITISH   RULE. 

A  CENTURY  after  the  death  of  Tamerlane  the 
Portuguese  effected  a  footing  in  India,  and  were  soon 
followed  by  the  Dutch,  French  and  English.  The 
two  first  named  never  established  an  extensive  settle- 
ment, but  the  British  and  their  old-time  Gallic 
enemies  were  for  many  years  engaged  in  a  keen 
struggle  for  supremacy. 

In  1700  the  former  had  important  trading  stations 
at  Madras,  at  Calcutta,  which  was  soon  after  made 
the  chief  seat  of  government,  and  at  Bombay,  the  site 
of  which  city  had  been  part  of  the  dowry  of  the 
Infanta  Catherine  upon  her  marriage  to  Charles  II., 
by  whom  it  Avas  sold  to  the  East  India  Company  in 
peri^etuity. 

By  this  time  the  Mughal  Empire  had  been  reduced 
to  little  more  than  a  name  by  a  process  of  attrition 
and  disintegration,  which  had  been  in  progress  from 
the  time  of  Aurangzeb.  The  Punjab,  Oudh,  Malwa, 
Sind,  Multan,  Kashmir  and  Kabul  were  each  gov- 
erned by  an  independent  chief.  Bengal  and  Orissa 
acknowledged  the  sway  of  Ali  Yard!  Khan.     Rohil- 

60 


ENDIA  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  (jl 

khand  had  thrown  off  the  Mughal  yoke.  The  six 
provinces  of  the  Deccan  were  under  the  control  of 
the  Nizam.  The  Marathas  had  ever  maintained 
their  independence,  and  continued  to  do  so  until 
subdued  by  the  English. 

The  declaration  of  war  by  France  in  1744  marked 
the  beginning  of  a  contest  in  India  which  extended 
over  a  period  of  sixty  years.  In  the  battles  which 
followed,  few  Europeans  were  engaged,  the  policy  of 
the  Company  and  of  the  French  Association  alike 
having  been  of  a  distinctly  commercial  character,  with 
no  view  to  the  acquisition  of  territory.  Moreover, 
neither  country — and  less  than  France,  England,  who 
was  engaged  in  a  world-wide  strife — was  in  a  position 
to  afford  any  very  considerable  reinforcements  to  the 
colonies  in  India. 

When  Madras  capitulated  to  the  fleet  under  La 
Bourdonnais  in  1746  the  garrisqn  consisted  of  a  force 
of  fewer  than  two  hundred.  Among  the  prisoners 
was  Robert  Clive,  a  writer  in  the  emj)loy  of  the 
Company,  who  a  few  years  after  laid  aside  the  pen  for 
the  sword,  and  entered  upon  the  brilliant  career 
which  was  the  principal  factor  in  tlie  foundation  of 
the  British  Empire  in  the  East. 

Ten  years  later  Sir;lj-ud-Daul;'i,  in  a  fit  of  drunlccn 
insanity,  perpetrated  tlie  foul  crime  associated  with 
the  "  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta."  Colonel  Clive  was 
dispatched  from  Madras  to  avenge  the  outrage. 
The  enterprise,  which   culminated  in  the   battle  of 


62  INDIA. 

Plasscv,  involved  the  Eiif^lish  in  a  j^reat  many  nnfore- 
seen  difficulties,  and  entailed  a  long  series  of  wars, 
which  continued,  with  hardly  a  j)acific  interval,  initil 
every  portion  of  the  coinitry  had  fallen  under  British 
control  by  treaty  or  annexation.  The  Mariithas, 
who  had  been  accustomed  to  collect  chout  in  the 
territory  now  ruled  over  l»y  Mir  Jafar,  made  a  demand 
for  the  resumption  of  the  payment.  For  the  time 
being  they  were  restrained  by  a  fear  of  Clive,  whose 
prestige  had  spread  far  and  wide ;  but  it  was  clear 
that  they  only  bided  a  favorable  opportunity  to 
enforce  their  claim.  The  Great  Mughal  next  made  an 
effort,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  the  French,  to 
overthrow  the  ruler  whom  the  English  had  set  up  in 
Bengal.  An  army  was  raised  under  the  Shahzada, 
and  marched  to  Patnii,  where  Clive  dispersed  it  with- 
out any  difficulty.  In  truth,  the  Mughal  was  no 
longer  a  foe  worth  reckoning  with.  His  throne, 
shaken  to  the  base  by  the  invasion  of  Nadir  Shah, 
had  but  recently  been  accelerated  to  its  fall  by  a  blow 
from  the  Afghans,  who  were  shortly  to  become  once 
more  the  dominant  power  in  Hindustan.  Meanwhile 
the  French  had  been  very  successful  in  their  opera- 
tions in  the  south.  Several  of  the  English  trading- 
posts  had  been  captured  by  them,  and,  but  for  the 
timely  intervention  of  Clive,  Madras  would  doubtless 
have  fallen.  Colonel  Forde,  in  the  Deccan,  and 
Colonel  Coote,  in  the  Peninsula,  retrieved  these  losses, 
and  the  latter,  by  defeating  Lally  at  Wandewash,  and 


A  Temple  Elephant 


INDIA   UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  63 

by  the  reduction  of  Pondicherri,  utterly  destroyed 
the  power  of  the  French  in  the  Karnatik.  Count 
Lally,  who  was  the  ablest  and  most  patriotic  of  the 
French  commanders  in  the  East,  expired  under 
the  guillotine — a  sacrifice  to  the  clamor  of  a  nation 
frenzied  by  the  loss  of  its  Indian  possessions. 

At  this  time  the  Afghans  were  again  in  possession 
of  the  throne  of  the  Mughals.  They  were  soon 
opposed  by  the  Manlthiis,  who  had  long  had  an  eye 
on  the  prize.  A  series  of  engagements  were  fought, 
ending  with  the  battle  of  Pauipat,  than  which  per- 
haps there  is  no  harder  fought  or  more  bloody  contest 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  The  Marathas  were 
defeated,  Avith  a  loss,  it  is  said,  of  two  hundred 
thousand  lives.  But  for  this  timely  reverse,  it  is 
probable  that  the  Marathas  would  have  made  the 
course  of  English  conquest  even  more  difficult  than  it 
actually  was. 

In  1760  Clive  resigned  the  position  of  Governor  of 
Bengal  and  returned  to  England.  Immediately  after- 
ward the  ncwly-apj)ointed  Nawab  of  Oudh,  8huja-ud- 
Daula,  began  aggressive  movements  against  the 
English.  For  three  years  his  actions  caused  the 
government  at  Calcutta  the  most  serious  trouble  and 
apprehension,  until,  in  17()4,  he  was  decisively  beaten 
by  Colonel  Hector  Munro  at  the  important  battle  of 
Buxar. 

The  immediate  result  of  this  victory  was  to  make 
the  Briti.sh   the  most  dominant  power  in   India.     It 


64  INDIA. 

placed  in  their  possession  the  tcrritur)' of  Oudh,  and 
brought  the  Mugliid  kingdom  under  their  control. 
During  the  absence  of  Clive  a  condition  of  gross  mis- 
rule and  extortion  prevailed  in  the  Company's  territory, 
Avith  the  result  that  the  natives  were  reduced  to  the 
utmost  misery.  To  remedy  this  state  of  affairs  Lord 
Clive  was  induced  to  return.  Setting  about  the  task 
with  a  stern  will  and  an  impartial  mind,  he  quickly 
righted  the  situation,  and  effected  measures  looking 
to  the  prevention  of  a  recurrence  of  the  evils ;  indeed, 
this  extraordinary  man  proved  himself  as  able  an 
administrator  as  he  was  a  soldier.  Returning  finally 
to  his  native  land,  Clive  experienced  the  ingratitude 
of  a  nation  for  whom  he  had  accomplished  more  than 
any  man  then  living.  He  sank  into  a  state  of 
despondency,  and  terminated  his  life  by  suicide,  in 
his  forty-ninth  year. 

During  the  stirring  and  dramatic  scenes  of  English 
conquest  one  great  man  follows  another  in  rapid  suc- 
cession u^ion  the  gorgeous  stage  of  India.  Warren 
Hastings,  although  of  a  character  differing  greatly 
from  that  of  Clive,  was  no  less  a  genius  than  his 
predecessor,  and,  like  him,  began  his  career  as  a  clerk. 
Cold  and  calculating,  but  not  mean  and  selfish,  as 
Burke  would  have  had  his  contemporaries  believe, 
and  only  grasping  for  his  country's  sake,  the  character 
and  career  of  Hastings  find  many  parallels  in  those 
of  the  late  Cecil  Rhodes. 

Under  the  governorship  of  \yarren   Hastings  the 


INDIA   UNDER   BRITISH   RULE.  65 

British  dominions  in  India  were  conserved  and 
largely  extended.  The  most  formidable  opponent 
with  whom  he  had  to  contend  in  this  process  was 
Haidar  All,  a  Muhammadau  adventurer,  without  birth 
or  education,  but  of  exceptional  military  ability,  who 
had  seized  the  kingdom  of  Mysore.  The  usurper  was 
a  man  of  barbarous  instincts  and  of  a  cruel  disposi- 
tion. In  1780,  with  an  army  of  thirty  thousand  men, 
he  overran  the  Karniitik,  wantonly  destroying  towns 
and  villages,  laying  waste  the  land  in  his  progress, 
and  slauo;htering  the  inhabitants  without  regard  to 
age  or  sex.  Two  small  bodies  of  European  troops, 
separated  and  entirely  unequal  to  the  task  of  success- 
fully opposing  him,  were  the  sole  dependence  of  the 
British  against  Haidar's  advance  upon  Madras.  At 
this  critical  juncture  Hastings  committed  one  of  the 
unlawful  acts  for  which  he  was  afterwards  condemned 
— an  act  which,  like  others  of  a  similar  character, 
was  prompted  by  the  exigency  of  the  occasion  and 
justified  by  the  outcome.  He  su])erseded  the  timid 
and  incapable  Council  of  Madras,  and  took  upon 
himself  the  direction  of  affairs.  The  veteran  Sir  Eyre 
Coote  was  promptly  dispatched  to  the  scene,  with  a 
small  force  ;  but  what  was  lacking  in  numbers  was  made 
up  for  in  the  capacity  and  prestige  of  the  commander. 
Check  after  check  was  given  to  Haidar  All,  culminat- 
ing, after  a  l)rilliant  tactical  campaign,  in  the  battle  of 
Cuddalore,  where  the  forces  of  the  Muhanmiadan  chief- 
tain were  driven  from  the  field  in  disorderly  rout. 
Vol.  I. — 5 


G6  INDIA. 

Haidar  Ali  died  in  1782,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Tipu  Sultiln.  The  latter  soon  engaged  in  an 
aggressive  war  against  the  English.  The  enterprise 
proved  costly,  for  in  1786  he  was  glad  to  secure  peace  at 
the  cost  of  half  his  kingdom  and  three  and  a  half  mil- 
lions pounds  sterling.  After  negotiations  and  agree- 
ments looking  toward  peace,  and  some  minor  hostilities, 
the  ao-gressions  of  the  Marathas  left  the  Eny-lish  with  no 
alternative  but  a  serious  declaration  of  war.  What  is 
known  as  the  First  Maratha  War  lasted  from  1779 
to  1782.  By  this  time  the  Marathas  had  recovered 
from  the  disaster  of  Piinipat,  and  their  subjugation 
presented  a  formidable  task  to  the  English.  Colonel 
Goddard  entered  Gujarat  and  gained  possession  of  a 
considerable  territory  belonging  to  the  Peshwai  The 
British  force,  however,  was  too  small  for  the  work 
assigned  to  it,  and,  becoming  surrounded  by  the 
armies  of  Holkar  and  Sindhia,  w'as  in  imminent  danger 
of  annihilation,  when  Hastings,  by  one  of  the  daring 
strokes  of  strategy  which  displayed  his  genius,  saved 
the  situation.  A  body  of  sepoys,  numbering  less  than 
twenty-five  hundred,  with  a  few  guns,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captain  Popham,  was  hurried  through 
Hindustan  toward  Mahva.  This  able  officer  excited 
universal  admiration  by  the  energy  with  which  his 
operations  were  undertaken  and  the  success  which 
attended  them.  The  capture  of  Gwalior,  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Hindustan,  Avas  as  brilliant  an 
achievement  as  any  in  the  annals  of  India.     Sindhia, 


INDIA  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  67 

threatened  with  the  loss  of  his  dominion,  returned  to 
Mulwa  in  haste,  and  thus  Goddard  was  reliev^ed  from 
his  perilous  position.  The  Mahadaji  Sindhia  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  the  English,  and  this  incident  had 
an  important  bearing  upon  later  events.  Subsequently 
the  Marathas  joined  Haidar  All  in  his  conflict  with 
the  English,  but  upon  the  death  of  the  latter  a  treaty 
was  concluded  with  the  Peshwa,  by  the  terms  of 
which  each  party  was  bound  to  withhold  aid  from  the 
enemies  of  the  other.  The  ratification  of  this  treaty 
by  the  various  Maratha  chiefs  was  mainly  due  to 
the  influence  of  Sindhia. 

In  1778  the  conflict  between  France  and  Engrland 
had  been  renewed  in  the  Peninsula.  The  former  were 
by  this  time  much  too  weak  to  withstand  the  growing 
power  of  the  latter,  and  Pondicherri  and  JNIahe  once 
again  chano;ed  hands. 

In  1785  the  government  of  Hastings  was  brought 
to  a  close  by  his  resignation  of  a  position  rendered 
untenable  by  the  dissensions  in  the  Council  and  the 
severe  strictures  of  the  Directors  upon  his  conduct. 
Despite  the  indisputable  faults  of  his  administration, 
the  services  of  Hastings  were  such  as  to  have  met 
with  approbation  and  reward  at  the  hands  of  his 
masters,  but  the  East  India  Company  had  been  sub- 
jected to  severely  adverse  criticism  in  Parliament  and 
in  the  public  press,  and  Hastings  became  a  convenient 
fender  for  the  jwpnlar  censure.  The  story  of  his  life 
and  ruin  are  graphically  recounted  by  Macaulay. 


GS  INDIA. 

At  this  time  the  four  principal  powers  in  India 
were  the  British,  the  Marathas,  Tipu  and  the 
!Nizam.  United,  the  Marathas  would  have  proved 
more  formidable  than  any  foe  the  English  had 
encountered  in  the  East;  but  the  nation  was  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  practically  independent  princi- 
palities, the  cliiefs  of  which  could  seldom  be  brought 
to  adopt  any  concerted  action.  Of  the  states  which 
acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  the  Peshwa,Gwalior  was 
the  most  powerful  and  its  prince  the  most  ambitious. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  chaotic  condition  of 
affairs  in  the  Mughal  kingdom,  the  Mahajadi  had 
contrived  to  establish  himself  at  Delhi  as  the  "deputy 
of  the  Peshwa,"  although  in  reality  he  Avas  the 
supreme  authority  and  the  Great  Mughal  but  a  puppet 
in  his  hands.  This  usurpation  of  power  on  the  part 
of  Sindhia  was  only  possible  with  the  consent  of  the 
English,  who,  having  been  well  served  by  the  Mar- 
atha  in  the  past,  and  hoping  to  find  in  him  a  useful 
ally  in  the  future,  interposed  no  barrier  to  the 
consummation  of  his  deep-laid  plans,  which  contem- 
plated the  creation  of  a  new  empire  out  of  the  decayed 
remains  of  the  Mughal  j)0wer. 

In  1798  the  Earl  of  Mornington  came  out  to  India 
as  Governor-General.  He  was  a  man  of  remarkable 
talents,  which  have,  however,  been  thrown  into  the 
shade  by  the  great  achievements  of  his  younger 
brother,  who  afterwards  became  the  famous  Duke  of 
Wellington. 


INDIA  UNDER   BRITISH  RULE.  G9 

The  situation  of  the  English  in  India  at  this  time 
forced  them  to  appreciate  tJie  observation  of  a  French 
writer  that,  "  in  the  light  of  precaution,  all  conquest 
must  be  ineffectual  unless  it  can  be  universal,  since 
the  increasing  circle  of  occupation  must  be  involved 
in  a  larger  sphere  of  hostility."  The  instructions 
of  the  Company  to  its  representatives  in  India  con- 
tain repeated  and  unequivocal  declarations  of  its 
disinclination  to  acquire  territory  other  than  mere 
trading-posts,  and  its  objection  to  the  expense  of 
maintaining  a  large  military  force.  In  1716  the 
chief  executives  at  Calcutta,  Bombay  and  Madras  are 
officially  informed  that,  "as  our  business  is  trade,  it 
is  not  politic  for  us  to  be  encumbered  with  ranch 
territory."  A  few  years  later  the  Governor  of  Bom- 
bay is  urged  to  "  Remember  that  we  are  not  fond  of 
much  territory."  The  Directors  protested  vigorously 
against  Clive's  acquisitions  and  his  interference  in 
native  quarrels,  which  promised  to  lead  to  further 
conquests.  "  Your  boundary,"  they  wrote  to  Iiim, 
"  is  the  Caruranassa  !  Do  not  go  beyond  the  Carum- 
nassa !  Leave  the  Marathas  to  fight  the  Afghans 
and  the  Nizam  to  fight  the  Mardthas,  and  devote  all 
your  attention  to  revenue  and  trade."  But  the 
retention  of  the  British  possessions  precluded  the 
possibility  of  following  these  injunctions,  and  the 
difficulties  which  Clive  saw  in  a  passive  policy  were 
greatly  enhanced  in  the  times  of  his  successors. 

The  first  act  of  the  Earl  of  Mornington's  adminis- 


70  INDIA. 

tnition  was  a  declaratiou  of  war  against  Tipii 
Sultan,  who  luul  entered  into  an  aggressive  alliance 
Avith  the  French.  Colonel  Arthur  Wellesley  was 
sent  into  Mysore  at  the  head  of  a  force  which  was 
reinforced  by  a  contingent  of  the  Nizam's  troops. 
Tipi'i  was  completely  defeated,  and  his  famous 
stronghold  at  Seringapatam  carried  by  storm.  The 
son  of  Haidar  AH  was  found  anions  the  slain. 

A  part  of  the  conquered  territory  Avas  formed  into 
a  Hindu  kingdom,  and  the  balance  partitioned 
among  the  English,  the  Niziim  and  the  Peshwa. 

The  peace  of  southern  India  demanded  repressive 
measures,  and  the  Governor-General,  who  had  been 
created  Marquis  of  Wellesley  on  account  of  the 
Mysore  campaign,  adopted  the  somewhat  autocratic 
remedy  of  establishing  British  control  over  Tanjore 
and  the  Karniitik.  It  was  agreed  that  the  reigning 
dynasties  should  not  be  disturbed  in  their  possessions, 
but  the  administration  of  their  affairs  was  transferred 
to  the  Company. 

Finding  that  his  efforts  to  preserve  peace  by  the 
establishment  of  a  balance  of  power  among  the  native 
states  were  futile,  Lord  Wellesley  conceived  a  sweep- 
ing measure  of  political  reform,  which  contemplated 
the  control  by  the  British  of  the  international  polity 
of  each  independent  kingdom  or  principality.  The 
chiefs  of  these  were  to  maintain  forces  officered  by 
ap]X)intees  of  the  Company,  and  to  guarantee  the 
expenses   of    these    military    establishments    by   the 


INDIA  UNDER  BEITISH  RULE.  71 

cession  of  certain  territories ;  the  lesser  were  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  suzerain  power.  One  and  all  were  to 
bind  themselves  not  to  enter  into  any  war,  nor 
negotiations  with  any  other  state,  unless  with  the 
consent  of  the  paramount  authority.  On  its  part,  the 
Government  of  the  Company  was  pledged  to  protect 
each  state  against  foreign  aggression  of  every  sort, 
and  to  secure  its  iuternal  peace. 

The  Niziim  of  Haidarabad  embraced  the  proposal 
with  alacrity,  and  was  followed  by  many  of  the  minor 
independencies ;  but  the  Peshwa  and  the  Maratha 
chiefs  held  out  against  all  persuasion.  The  former, 
however,  became  shortly  afterwards  involved  in 
trouble  with  Holkar,  who  marched  an  army  to 
Poona,  and  defeated  the  combined  forces  of  the 
Peshwa  and  Sindhia.  In  this  extremity  the  chief  of 
the  Marutha  Empire  was  glad  to  save  his  throne  at 
the  cost  of  acknowledging  the  British  suzerainty. 
His  action,  however,  had  no  influence  upon  the  pow- 
erful chiefs,  Sindhia,  Holkar  and  Bhonsia,  and  it 
was  evident  that  the  treaty,  instead  of  tending  to 
peace,  must  inevitably  result  in  war.  Indeed  at  this 
time  the  Marathas  were  the  only  obstacle  between 
the  English  and  universal  dominion  over  India,  and 
the  Government  realized  tlie  necessity  of  settling  the 
question  of  supremacy  once  for  all.  General  Lake, 
in  Bengal,  and  Colonel  AVellesley,  in  the  Deccan, 
made  preparations  for  the  impending  struggle.  The 
second   Maratha   war  broke   out   in    1803.     In   the 


72  INDIA. 

south  the  youthful  CoUmicI  Wollesley  conducted  a 
brilliaut  campaigu.  The  battle  of  Assaye  was  fought 
uith  four  thousand  men  against  the  combined  forces 
of  iSindhia  and  Bhonsla,  numbering  fifty  thousand. 
The  victory  fell  to  the  handful  of  Europeans,  and  was 
earned  by  a  series  of  magnificent  charges,  which  leit 
one-third  of  the  force  u})on  the  field. 

Tennyson,  in  his  "Ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,"  refers  to  it  thus : 

"  This  is  he  that  far  away 
Against  the  myriads  of  Assaye 
Clash'd  with  a  fiery  few  and  won." 

This  decisive  action  was  followed  by  minor  repulses 
in  rapid  succession,  until  at  the  end  of  the  year  Sindhia 
and  his  ally  were  glad  to  sue  for  peace. 

In  the  meanwhile  Lake,  in  the  north,  had  been  no 
less  successful.  His  chief  opponents  were  the  French 
troops  in  the  pay  of  the  ]\Iarathas.  These  were 
defeated  at  the  capture  of  the  fortress  of  Alighar,  and 
again  in  the  defence  of  Delhi,  where  the  blind  and 
aged  Shah  Alam,  a  pitiable  representative  of  the 
dynasty  which  included  Akbar  and  Aurangzeb,  was 
glad  to  place  himself  under  the  protection  of  the 
British,  by  whom  he  was  installed  in  the  palace  and 
secured  in  a  liberal  pension. 

Continuing  his  operations  in  Hindustan,  General 
Lake  captured  Agra,  and  defeated  a  French  army  at 


INDIA  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  73 

Laswdri.  This  engagement  dealt  the  final  blow  to 
the  French  influence  in  India. 

It  only  remained  to  reduce  Ilolkar  to  submission,  in 
order  to  complete  Lord  Wellesley's  political  sclieme 
for  the  government  of  the  country.  This  difficulty 
was  upon  the  ]X)int  of  removal,  and  universal  peace, 
for  a  time  at  least,  apjjeared  to  be  in  sight,  when  the 
course  of  events  was  diverted  by  the  home  authorities. 
Lord  Cornwallis  su[>erseded  the  ISIarquis  of  Wellesley, 
with  instructions  to  adopt  an  entirely  different  policy 
from  that  of  his  predecessor. 

The  high  order  of  statesmanship  dis[)layed  by  the 
Marquis  of  Wellesley  entitles  him  to  rank  with  Clive 
and  Hastings  as  one  of  a  pre-eminent  trio  among  the 
illustrious  names  connected  w'ith  the  foundation  and 
growth  of  the  Indian  Empire.  His  policy,  which 
looked  beyond  the  narrow  scope  of  a  trading  corpora- 
tion to  the  prestige  and  welfare  of  the  British  nation, 
was  doubtless  in  advance  of  the  time,  and  could  not 
have  been  expected  to  excite  the  approval  of  his  com- 
mercial masters.  To  him  is  due  the  credit  for  the 
inception  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service  as  it  exists 
to-day.  He  established  a  training  college  in  Calcutta, 
which  became  the  parent  of  Ilaileybury.  His  recruits, 
unlike  the  book-keepers  and  traders  of  preceding 
genemtions,  were  schooled  iu  political  economy,  tlie 
history  and  languages  of  India,  as  well  as  civil,  mili- 
tary and  international  law.  Thus  he  formed  a  cor})s 
of   political  officers  whose   aspirations  and   energies 


74  INDIA. 

wore  directed  towards  the  advancement  of  British 
interests  upon  a  broader  plane  than  that  contemplated 
by  any  of  his  predecessors  or  immediate  successors. 

By  this  time  the  Directors  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany had  become  thoroughly  alarmed  at  the  rapid 
growth  and  extension  of  their  dominions,  and  the 
corresponding  reduction  in  the  profits  of  the  corpora- 
tion. They  could  not  be  brought  to  understand  that, 
for  the  greater  ]>art,  the  native  powers  were  but 
mushroom  principalities,  which  had  sprung  out  of  the 
anarchy  and  chaos  of  the  preceding  fifty  years ;  that 
their  rulers  needed  the  same  checks  and  training  as 
did  the  old  feudal  kings  and  barons  of  Europe,  and 
that  only  by  reducing  them  to  the  condition  of  feuda- 
tories could  peace  be  assured  to  India.  Lord  Com- 
wallis  accordingly  set  about  reversing  the  acts  of  his 
predecessor,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  country 
would  soon  have  been  in  a  state  of  turmoil  and  law- 
lessness had  not  death  prevented  the  consummation 
of  the  Governor-General's  plans. 

Under  Sir  Georjre  Barlow  and  Lord  Minto  the 
policy  of  non-intervention  in  native  affairs,  which  had 
been  initiated  by  I^ord  Cornwallis,  was  continued,  but 
with  a  sufficient  degree  of  caution  to  prevent  immedi- 
ate disastrous  results. 

In  1813  the  Marquis  of  Hastings  became  the 
Governor-General  of  India.  Although  he  came  out 
imbued  with  a  strong  aversion  to  the  policy  of 
acquisition  and  control,  he  was  very  soon  converted  to 


INDIA   UNDEE   BRITISH  KULE.  75 

the  views  of  Lord  Wellesley,  and,  despite  his  instruc- 
tions to  the  contrary,  steered  his  course  in  the  direction 
followed  by  that  statesman. 

Lord  Hastino;s  soon  eu2rao;ed  in  a  war  in  the  north 
which  had  for  its  result  the  reduction  of  the  Gurkhas, 
Avho,  like  the  Sikhs,  afterward  became  the  most 
reliable  and  valuable  allies  of  the  English.  In  the 
south  a  successful  war  was  waged  against  the  Pind- 
aris,  who,  by  their  atrocities,  had  excited  the  indig- 
nation of  the  civilized  world. 

The  intrigues  of'  the  Mardthd  chiefs,  and  the  succor 
which  they  had  for  some  time  past  surreptitiously 
afforded  to  the  enemies  of  the  British,  culminated  in 
1817  in  open  rupture.  The  war  was  precipitated  by 
the  attack  upon  the  British  post  at  Kirki.  A  few 
days  later  the  battle  of  Sitabuldi  was  fought.  This 
engagement  is  notable  in  the  annals  of  India  as  the 
first  of  consequence  in  which  the  troops  of  the  English 
were  composed  entirely  of  sepoys,  and  it  opened  the 
eyes  of  the  Government  to  the  possible  effectiveness 
of  native  soldiers  when  led  by  English  officers.  At 
Sitdbuldi  no  more  tiian  fourteen  hundred  sepoys,  three 
troops  of  Bengal  cavalry  and  four  six-pounders,  were 
opposed  to  the  Marathd  force  of  eighteen  thousand, 
including  some  of  the  best  soldiers  in  the  Deccan, 
and  thirty  guns.  The  struggle  was  hotly  sustained 
from  daylight  of  one  day  until  noon  of  the  next. 
More  than  once  the  defenders  were  upon  the  verge 
of  destruction,  but   the  tide  of  victory  was  finally 


76  INDIA. 

turned  in  their  favor  by  a  brilliant  charge  of  the 
cavalry  under  Captain  Fitzgerald,  which,  like  Sir 
Colin  Campbell  at  Inkerman,  he  undertook  upon  his 
own  responsibility,  and  despite  the  protests  of  his 
commander. 

Holkar  next  attacked  the  English,  and  met  wath  a 
decisive  defeat,  which  brought  the  active  opposition 
of  the  Marathds  to  a  close.  Lord  Hastings  wisely 
determined  that  the  abolition  of  the  Peshwd,  the 
hereditary  head  of  the  INIardthd  confederation,  would 
be  conducive  to  peace  by  reducing  the  chances  of 
future  coalitions.  B^ji  Rao  was  accordingly  deposed, 
but,  with  the  accustomed  generosity  of  the  Govern- 
ment in  similar  aifairs,  was  allowed  a  pension  of 
eighty  thousand  pounds  a  year  for  life.  Holkar's 
kingdom  was  restored  to  him,  on  his  giving  pledges 
for  future  good  behavior,  and  treaties  were  made  with 
the  other  Mardtha  chieftains. 

The  administration  of  Lord  Hastings,  supplement- 
ing and  completing  as  it  did  the  policy  of  Lord 
Wellesley,  was  successful  in  the  highest  degree,  and 
the  wisdom  of  it  was  frequently  illustrated  in  the 
current  of  after  history.  Contrary  to  the  opinion, 
entertained  up  to  this  time,  that  the  safety  of  the 
English  was  deijendent  upon  the  ignorance  of  the 
natives,  Lord  Hastings  believed  that  the  ultimate 
welfare  of  both  would  be  subserved  by  the  education 
of  the  latter,  and,  what  is  of  more  importance,  he  had 
the  courage,  in  the  face  of  general  disapproval,  to  put 


INDIA  UNDER  BRITISH   RULE.  77 

his  ideas  iuto  practice  by  the  establishment  of  schools 
and  journals  for  the  enlightenment  of  the  native 
population.  In  this,  as  in  other  measures,  Loixl 
Hastings  was  in  advance  of  his  generation,  and  like 
his  prototype,  Lord  Wellesley,  failed  of  appreciation 
in  his  own  time. 

Lord  Amherst  succeeded  to  the  Governor-General- 
ship of  India  in  1823.  His  administration  is  chiefly 
notable  for  the  conflict  with  Burma.  Difficulties  with 
the  Burmese  had  commenced  before  the  term  of  Lord 
Wellesley  in  India,  but  it  was  not  until  their  con- 
quests in  Assam  and  Muuipur,  and  their  threatened 
invasion  of  Bengal,  that  the  British  were  forced  to 
take  active  measures  for  their  repression.  In  1824 
an  expedition  was  sent  into  Burma.  Two  years  later 
a  treaty  was  coucluded,  by  the  terms  of  which  the 
territories  of  Assam,  Arakan  and  Tenasserim  were 
ceded  to  the  conquerors  and  a  money  indemnity  paid. 

The  administration  of  Lord  William  Bentinck, 
which  extended  over  the  period  from  1828  to  1835, 
was  a  comparatively  peaceful  one.  In  fact,  India 
had  emerged  from  the  long  centuries  of  war  and  mis- 
rule which  had  retarded  her  progress  and  had  sunk 
her  people  in  misery,  and  Avas  entering  u])on  an  era 
of  peace,  prosperity  and  enlightenment. 

liord  Bentinck  accomplished  many  political  and 
social  reforms  of  the  greatest  importance.  He  re- 
modeled the  judicial  system,  and  effected  improv(>- 
ments  in  the  methods  of  laud  tenure.     He  checked 


78  INDIA. 

extravagance  in  the  civil  and  military  offices,  and 
employed  natives  extensively  in  tlie  public  service. 
He  caused  an  abatement  of  thagi  and  abolished 
sati.  His  administration  was  chiefly  notable  for  the 
measures  which  were  taken  for  the  betterment  of  the 
masses. 

In  1838  Dost  Muhammad  Khdn,  the  Amir  of 
Afghiinistan,  furnished  the  British  with  a  casus  belli 
by  receiving  a  Russian  mission  at  Kdbul,  in  violation 
of  treaty.  Lord  Auckland  declared  war  in  1838. 
The  events  which  followed  constitute  one  of  the  most 
thrilling  chapters  in  the  story  of  the  Indian  Empire, 
and  must  be  familiar  to  all  students  of  Oriental 
history.  The  deposition  of  Dost  Muhammad  and  the 
elevation  of  Shah  Shujd ;  the  heroic  defence  of  Jalala- 
bad by  Sir  Robert  Sale ;  the  treacherous  murder  of 
INIacnaghten  ;  the  retreat  from  Kabul,  and  the  annihi- 
lation of  a  force  of  four  thousand  troops  and  twelve 
thousand  camp-followers,  of  whom  but  one  solitary 
individual  survived  to  tell  tlie  tale  of  horror — these 
were  the  most  prominent  features  of  the  first  Afghan 
expedition. 

The  task  of  relieving  Sale's  garrison,  pent  up  in 
Jalaldbild,  and  of  avenging  the  murder  of  the  British 
envoy,  and  punishing  tlie  treachery  of  the  Pathdns, 
called  for  the  immediate  attention  of  Lord  Ellen- 
borough  upon  his  arrival,  as  Governor-General,  at 
Calcutta  in  1842. 

The   conduct   of  the  campaign    was   entrusted   to 


INDIA  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  79 

General  Pollock,  and  he  brought  it  to  a  successful 
close  in  the  course  of  the  year.  It  was  a  bloody  con- 
flict, signalized  by  the  commission  of  barbarities  upon 
both  sides ;  but  in  extenuation  of  the  British  excesses 
it  should  be  remembered  that  their  foes  had  perpe- 
trated some  of  the  foulest  deeds  of  treachery  the  world 
has  ever  witnessed. 

Meanwhile  the  Sikhs,  whose  independence  had  been 
respected  by  the  British  Government,  had  grown  to  be 
a  formidable  power — much  more  formidable,  indeed, 
than  the  authorities  at  Calcutta  had  any  idea  of,  until 
they  came  into  conflict  with  it.  The  Sikh  army 
numbered  at  least  one  hundred  thousand,  and  was 
made  up  of  fighting  men  of  a  stamp  who  had  no 
equal,  save  for  the  Gurkhas,  among  the  natives  of 
India. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

INDIA    UNDER   BRITISH   RULE. 

The  prosperity  of  the  Sikhs  was  coincident  with 
the  growth  of  a  spirit  of  aggression.  Under  Ranjit 
Singh  the  nation  had  been  carefully  steered  clear  of  a 
collision  with  the  English  ;  but  after  the  death  of  that 
astute  chief,  in  1839,  the  administration  of  the  Punjab 
fell  into  less  capable  hands. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1845,  the  Sikh  army 
of  the  Khalsa  crossed  the  Sutlej  and  invaded  British 
territory.  This  act  of  fatuous  recklessness  was  with- 
out warrant  or  provocation.  The  British  were  unpre- 
pared for  the  hostile  movement,  and  the  Sikhs  might 
have  met  with  considerable  success  but  for  dissensions 
and  treachery  among  their  leaders.  As  it  was,  a 
number  of  stubbornly  contested  engagements  took 
place,  leading  up  to  the  memorable  battle  of  Sabraon, 
the  hardest  fought  in  the  history  of  the  British  con- 
quest of  India.  The  Sikhs  lost  eight  thousand  men, 
and  the  British  not  less  than  one-fourth  of  that 
number.  The  victory  by  the  English  terminated  the 
first  Sikh  war,  and  enabled  Lord  Hardinge  to  annex 
the  Jalandhar  Dodb,  and  to  extend  the  British  frontier 

80 


INDIA  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  81 

from  the  Sutlej  to  the  Ravi.  The  peace  thus  brought 
about  was  of  short  duratiou.  In  1S48  Lord  Dal- 
housie,  then  Governor-General,  was  forced  by  the 
treachery  of  the  Sikhs,  and  the  wanton  murder  of 
some  British  officers,  to  declare  war.  The  spirit  with 
which  he  entered  upon  this  enterprise  may  be  gauged 
by  a  characteristic  statement  uttered  by  him  in  a 
public  speech  :  "  Unwarned  by  precedent,  uninfluenced 
by  example,  the  Sikh  nation  has  called  for  war,  and 
on  my  word,  sirs,  they  shall  have  it  with  a  vengeance." 

In  the  early,  operations  the  British  met  with 
reverses.  Major  George  Lawrence,  one  of  the  three 
brothers  whose  services  to  their  country  in  India  will 
never  be  forgotten,  was  obliged  to  give  up  Peshdwar 
to  the  Afghans,  who  had  thrown  their  strength  into 
the  struggle  on  the  side  of  the  Sikhs.  In  a  similar 
manner  Captain  Herbert,  at  Attock,  was  forced  to 
capitulate. 

In  November,  1848,  Lord  Gougli  fought  an  inde- 
cisive action  with  Sher  Singh,  the  Sikh  leader,  at 
Rdmnagar,  and  two  months  later  met  him  again 
upon  the  field  of  Chilianwdla.  This  was  the  most 
bloody  encounter  in  the  history  of  British  India. 
Each  side  claimed  the  victory,  which  at  best  was  a 
drawn  battle.  The  English  lost  twenty-four  liiiiidicd 
men,  and  the  Sikhs  took  up  a  [jo.sition  in  the  ni'ighbur- 
hood  of  the  field. 

The  course  of  affairs  was  so  nearly  disastrous  as  to 
cause  consternation  and  alarm  in  India  and  England. 
Vol    I  — G 


82  INDIA. 

Sir  Charles  Napier  was  hastily  dispatched  to  super- 
sede Ijord  Goiig'ii  as  commaader-in-chief,  but  before 
he  could  reach  the  scene  of  action  the  latter  had 
retrieved  his  prestige  by  the  great  victory  over  the 
Sikhs  at  Gujarat.  This  battle  sealed  the  fate  of  the 
Punjab  and  terminated  the  aspirations  of  the  Sikhs 
forever.  The  entire  country  was  annexed  and  im- 
mediately placed  under  an  admirable  administration. 
The  young  INIahjiraja  Dhulip  Singh  received  a  life 
annuity  of  fifty  thousand  pounds  a  year.  He  made 
his  home  in  England,  where  his  son  holds  a  com- 
mission in  the  army. 

Under  Ijord  Dalhousie  the  moral  and  material 
progress  of  the  country  was  accelerated.  In  the 
Punjab,  which  had  never  before  been  under  British 
control,  be  had  a  free  hand  and  a  maiden  field  for  the 
exercise  of  his  talents.  He  reduced  the  taxes  on 
land  to  less  than  one-fourth  the  amount  which  had 
been  exacted  by  the  native  rulers.  Transit  duties 
on  merchandise  and  personal  property,  which  had 
been  heavy,  he  abolished  entirely.  Vigorous  measures 
w^ere  adopted  for  the  suppression  of  thagi,  dacoity, 
slavery  and  infanticide.  Roads,  canals  and  systems 
of  irrigation  were  constructed,  and,  in  a  word, 
"  within  seven  years  of  the  battle  of  Gujarat  the 
Punjab  presented  more  traces  of  British  civilization 
and  dominion  than  any  other  province  in  British 
India." 

The  policy  of  improvement  which  proved  so  bene- 


INDIA  UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  83 

ficial  to  the  Punjab  was  applied  by  Lord  Dalhousie, 
though  less  extensively,  for  lack  of  means,  to  the 
British  territory  in  Burma. 

Lord  Dalhousie's  last  administrative  act  was  the 
much-criticised  annexation  of  Oudh.  Whatever  may 
be  the  strictly  legal  aspect  of  the  affair,  there  can  be 
no  question  about  the  fact  that  the  people  of  the 
country  benefited  immensely  by  the  change  from 
chronic  anarchy  to  a  condition  of  law  and  order. 

The  country  had  been  conquered  by  the  English  in 
1764,  but  was  restored  to  the  Nawab  by  Clive. 
From  that  time  Oudh  was  a  source  of  anxiety  and 
concern  to  each  successive  Governor-General ;  not  on 
account  of  any  fear  of  aggression  from  that  quarter, 
for  in  that  respect  it  was  less  troublesome  than  any 
other  province,  but  because  of  the  knowledge  that  in 
no  State  in  India  was  the  administration  so  corrupt 
and  tyrannical,  and  the  state  of  the  masses  so  utterly 
abject  and  miserable.  In  1851  the  British  Resident 
reported  the  people  downtrodden,  plundered  and 
maltreated  by  the  soldiery  and  the  tahukdars,  without 
any  semblance  of  jirotection  or  redress.  The  former, 
who  composed  the  standing  army  of  seventy  thousand, 
were  permitted  to  recouj)  themselves  for  constant 
arrears  of  pay  by  levying  unlawful  contributions 
upon  the  inha1)itants.  The  latter,  between  whom  tlie 
land  was  parceled  out  in  holdings  of  various  extent, 
lived  in  fortresses  and  maintained  bands  of  brigands 
in  their  pay,  while  they  preyed  upon  the  surroimding 


84  INDIA. 

conntrv  at  will  or  carried  on  armed  conflicts  among 
themselves.  The  system  of  government,  if"  such  it 
could  be  called,  was  corrupt  to  the  core.  Every 
office  was  bought,  and  each  office-holder  was  allowed 
to  compensate  himself,  as  best  he  might,  for  lack  of 
salary,  with  the  result  that  the  jwsitions  which  offered 
the  greatest  opportunities  for  oppression  and  extortion 
were  the  most  sought,  and  brought  the  highest  prices. 
Meanwhile  the  king,  who  lived  a  life  of  profligate 
ease  and  indifference,  was  secured  in  the  peaceful 
possession  of  his  estate  by  the  British  Government, 
which  was  bound  by  agreement  to  protect  him  from 
foreign  aggression  or  interference. 

Lord  Dalhousie,  while  fully  persuaded  that  the 
condition  of  things  in  Oudh  demanded  drastic  reme- 
dial measures,  was  inclined,  in  view  of  the  past 
consistent  loyalty  of  the  ro}^l  family,  to  deal  Avith 
the  king  as  leniently  as  possible.  He  proposed  to 
leave  him  in  possession  of  his  throne,  but  to  transfer 
the  administration  of  his  dominions  to  the  British  on 
a  plan  similar  to  that  w^hich  had  been  adopted  with 
some  of  the  other  native  States.  In  this  project  he 
was,  however,  thwarted  by  the  Directors,  who,  con- 
trary to  their  previous  policy,  insisted  upon  the 
annexation  of  the  kingdom.  In  1856  the  transfer 
was  effected.  The  king  was  granted  an  enormous 
pension  and  removed  to  Calcutta,  where  he  occupied 
a  palace  in  the  suburbs  and  maintained  a  small  armed 
force  for  display.     A  system  of  government  similar  to 


INDIA  UNDER   BRITISH  RULE.  85 

that  which  had  worked  with  success  in  the  Punjab 
was  introduced,  and  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  as  Com- 
missioner assumed  the  head  of  affairs. 

At  this  time  the  British  dominions  in  India  rested 
in  perfect  tranquillity.  When  Lord  Canning  took  his 
seat  as  the  executive  chief,  in  succession  to  Lord  Dal- 
housie,  there  was  nothing  in  the  political  or  social 
condition  of  the  country  to  portend,  or  even  raise  a 
suspicion  of,  the  fierce  whirlwind  which  was  so  soon 
to  sweep  over  Hindustan. 

The  causes  which  led  to  the  Indian  Mutiny  have 
never  been  thoroughly  understood,  if  indeed  they 
have  been  entirely  known.  They  were  too  many, 
and  too  complex  in  character,  to  be  clearly  defined  or 
estimated  as  to  their  relative  importance. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1857  the  native 
portion  of  the  British  army,  in  Bengal  alone,  num- 
bered one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  distributed 
between  seventy-four  regiments  of  infantry,  eleven  of 
cavalry,  four  troops  of  horse  artillery  and  two  bat- 
talions of  field  artillery.  This  large  armament  was 
further  augmented  by  irregulars  to  the  extent  of 
twenty-three  regiments  of  cavalry,  seven  battalions 
of  Sikh  infantry  and  some  twenty  other  corps  of 
various  arms.  The  European  force  consisted  of  fifteen 
Queen's  regiments,  two  of  which  were  cavalry,  three 
brigades  of  horse,  and  two  battalions  of  foot,  artillery. 
This  force  was  distributed  over  an  expanse  of  terri- 
tory extending  from  Assam  to  Afghdnistiiu,  and  from 


86  INDIA. 

tlie  Himdlayas  to  the  Vindhyas.  The  native  troops 
had  been  disciplined  and  well  trained  in  the  use  of 
arras,  and  had  often  proved  themselves  courageous 
and  loyal  under  trying  circumstances,  but  they  were 
"  the  most  credulous  and  excitable  soldiery  in  the 
world." 

There  was  a  story  current  in  Hindustan  of  an  old- 
time  prophecy  to  the  effect  that  the  rule  of  the  Com- 
pany would  cease  one  hundred  years  from  the  battle 
of  Plassey,  which  indeed  it  did  in  the  year  following. 
About  this  time  there  were  evidences  of  a  widespread 
conspiracy  of  some  sort,  which  had  its  manifestation 
in  the  mysterious  distribution  of  chupaties  or  cakes 
throughout  the  towns  and  villages  of  northern  India. 
It  was  an  ancient  method  of  secret  communication 
which  always  portended  an  event  of  great  importance ; 
but,  although  some  of  the  most  experienced  of  the 
Company's  servants  saw  a  sinister  significance  in  this 
swiftly-constructed  chain  of  signals,  the  Government 
treated  their  warnings  with  indifference.  At  the  same 
time  "a  number  of  holy  men  of  the  Muhammadan  and 
of  the  Hindu  faiths  were  rapidly  traveling  from  point 
to  point,  preaching  with  unusual  zeal,  and  exciting 
the  fanaticism  of  their  hearers  to  the  highest  pitch. 
This  circumstance  also  escaped  the  notice  of  the 
authorities,  or  was  unheeded  by  them.  Early  in  1857 
the  Enfield  rifle  was  issued  to  the  native  troops,  and 
with  it  a  new  cartridge,  which  afforded  the  disaffected 
spirits  an  opportunity  for  playing  upon  the  religious 


INDIA  UNDEK  BRITISH   RULE.  87 

feelings  of  the  sepoys.  It  was  rumored  that  the 
hibricant  of  the  new  cartridges  was  prepared  from  the 
fat  of  cows  and  pigs,  the  one  being  abhorrent  to  the 
Hindus  and  the  other  to  the  Muhammadans.  The 
story  spread  with  the  mysterious  rapidity  of  news  in 
the  East,  and,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  preceding 
events,  was  sufficient  to  convince  the  troops  of  the 
Bengal  array  that  the  British  were  engaged  in  a 
deliberate  attempt  to  violate  their  religion  and  Chris- 
tianize the  country.  When  we  consider  that  forcible 
conversion  had  not  been  uncommon  in  the  times  of 
former  rulers,  it  is  less  difficult  to  understand  the 
credulity  of  the  native  soldiers  upon  this  occasion. 
Mutinies  broke  out  in  the  regiments  stationed  at 
Barrackpur,  Berhampur  and  Lucknow,  but  M'cre 
promptly  suppressed,  while  at  other  points  incendiary 
fires,  mutterings  of  discontent  and  indications  of 
arising  panic  presaged  the  impending  storm.  At 
length  it  burst  in  a  quarter  so  distant  from  the 
scene  of  the  first  disaffection  as  to  indicate  too  plainly 
the  extent  of  the  spirit  of  mutiny. 

On  Sunday,  May  10th,  1857,  the  native  troops  at 
Mcerut  broke  out  in  open  revolt.  Mccrut,  the  largest 
military  station  in  India  at  the  time,  is  situated  about 
forty  miles  from  Delhi.  Tiic  cantonments  contained 
two  regiments  of  sepoy  infantry  and  one  of  sowars, 
and  a  European  force  consisting  of  a  battalion  oC 
infantry,  a  regiment  of  cavalry,  two  trooj)s  of  liorsc 
artillery  and  a  field  battery.     The  British  cor[)s  were 


88  INDIA. 

sufficient  to  have  subdued  the  mutineers  with  ease, 
but  the  general  in  command  of  the  post  was  aged, 
and  unfit  to  cope  with  the  situation.  There  was  an 
absence  of  intelligent  direction  in  the  movement  of 
the  European  troops,  and  so  great  delay  in  bringing 
them  into  action,  that  the  mutinous  regiments  were 
allowed  to  eifect  a  jail  delivery,  to  set  fire  to  the 
cantonments  in  several  places,  murder  a  number  of 
officers  and  civilians,  and  depart  on  the  road  to  Delhi 
without  encountering  any  resistance.  Even  then  it 
would  have  been  no  difficult  task  for  General  Hewitt, 
Avith  the  force  at  his  command,  to  have  overtaken  and 
annihilated  the  fugitives.  Prompt  and  decisive  action 
would  have  checked,  if  it  had  not  prevented,  the 
spread  of  the  mutiny,  to  the  danger  of  which  the 
Government  was  now  fully  alive.  But  there  was  no 
pursuit,  no  action  of  any  kind,  save  a  warning  over 
the  wires  to  Delhi  that  the  mutineers  were  on  their 
way  to  the  imperial  city,  bent  upon  proclaiming  the 
decrepit  descendant  of  the  Mughals  Emperor  of 
Hindustan. 

Delhi  was  garrisoned  by  three  regiments  of  sepoys 
and  a  battery  of  native  artillery.  Save  for  the 
officers  of  these  corps  there  were  no  European 
soldiers  in  the  place.  Brigadier  Graves,  ably  sup- 
ported by  his  subordinates,  did  all  that  was  possible 
to  protect  the  city,  but  the  companies  on  guard  at 
the  gates,  after  shooting  their  officers,  went  over  to 
the  insurgents,  whose  entrance  was  further  facilitated 


INDIA   UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  89 

by  the  kicg  opening  a  passage  through  the  palace. 
Europeans  were  murdered  in  every  direction,  and  by 
nightfall  the  city  was  lost  and  the  surviving  English 
in  disorderly  flight.  However,  that  disastrous  Mon- 
day witnessed  one  of  those  deeds  of  splendid  heroism 
Avhich  light  the  dark  pages  of  the  history  of  the  Sepoy 
Rebellion.  The  magazine,  situated  in  the  centre  of  the 
city,  was  held  by  Lieutenant  Willoughby,  two  other 
officers  and  six  conductors.  These  devoted  few  held 
out  through  the  long  day,  confidently  expecting,  as 
did  every  one  else  with  good  reason,  the  arrival  of 
succor  from  Meerut.  Assault  after  assault  was  re- 
pulsed with  grape  and  shrapnel.  As  hour  followed 
hour  in  disappointing  succession,  and  the  ammunition 
began  to  run  low,  it  became  evident  to  the  little  garri- 
son that  they  could  look  for  no  help  from  without. 
Then  their  commander  determined  to  secure  victory 
even  at  the  expense  of  death.  He  ordered  a  train  to 
be  laid  to  the  magazine,  and  Conductor  Scully  stood 
by  to  fire  it.  The  guns  were  served  to  the  last  with 
cool  precision  and  effect,  until  the  ammunition  was 
exhausted.  The  explosion  was  calmly  timed  to  the 
fraction  of  a  minute.  The  rebels  were  allowed  to 
swarm  into  the  inclosure  from  every  side.  Then 
Willoughby  gave  the  signal ;  the  powder  was  touched 
off,  and  with  a  tremendous  roar  and  upheaval  the 
magazine  went  into  the  air,  hurling  ujnvard  the 
faithful  band  of  EurojX'ans,  but  with  them  fifteen 
hundred  of  the  mutinous  soldiery.     Strange  to  say, 


90  INDIA. 

AVillonghby  and  three  others  survived  the  explosion, 
which  destroyed  over  a  thousand  souls.  Maimed  and 
scorched,  they  made  their  escape,  but  the  gallant 
officer  died  from  the  effects  of  his  injuries  a  few 
weeks  afterwards. 

The  gravity  of  the  uprising  was  now  glaringly 
patent,  and  Lord  Canning  took  extensive,  if  some- 
what tardy,  measures  to  withstand  it.  Eiu'opean 
troops  M'ere  telegraphed  for  from  every  available 
point,  and  the  entire  machinery  of  the  Government 
was  directed  toward  the  one  end  of  suppressing  an 
upheaval  which  seriously  threatened  the  British 
dominion  in  India. 

The  coup  which  the  mutineers  effected  at  Delhi 
acted  like  a  lighted  brand  in  the  midst  of  inflammable 
material.  From  every  direction  rebel  sepoys  poured 
into  the  city.  Generally  they  were  ia  possession  of 
their  arms  and  sometimes  brought  big  guns  with  them. 
In  most  cases  the  revolting  regiments  murdered  their 
officers,  burnt  the  cantonments  and  plundered  the 
treasury  before  repairing  to  the  standard,  which 
Bahadur  Shah,  not  without  misgivings,  had  raised  at 
the  instigation  of  his  favorite  wife. 

At  Lucknow  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  had  been  engaged 
in  active  preparations  for  an  outbreak  since  the  3d 
of  May,  on  which  date  the  conduct  of  a  regiment  of 
Oudh  irregulars  necessitated  their  disbandment.  The 
Residency  was  an  extensive  walled  inclosure,  which,  in 
addition  to  the  Executive  Mansion,  contained  a  number 


INDIA   UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  91 

of  smaller  buildings.  On  one  side  was  the  city, 
occupied  by  a  hostile  population  ;  on  the  other  the 
river  Gumti,  and  beyond  it  the  sepoy  cantonments. 
The  native  force  at  Lucknow  numbered  thirty-five 
hundred,  a  few — a  very  few — of  whom  remained  true 
to  their  colors,  while  the  sole  European  regiment  was 
no  more  than  five  hundred  and  seventy  strong.  On 
the  30th  of  May  the  sepoys  attempted  to  rush  the 
bridges  which  connected  the  cantonments  with  the 
city,  but  met  with  such  a  warm  reception  from  the 
force  under  the  Commissioner  that  they  dispersed  and 
fled  to  Delhi. 

Cawnpur  was  in  even  a  more  defenceless  state  than 
Lucknow.  While  its  native  contingent  was  as 
numerous  as  that  at  the  latter  point,  the  European 
soldiers  consisted  of  only  sixty  artillerymen  and  two 
small  detachments,  which  had  been  sent  from  Luck- 
now and  Benares.  At  Cawnpur  the  command  was 
held  by  the  veteran  Sir  Hugh  AVheeler,  who,  although 
almost  seventy  years  of  age,  displayed  a  remarkable 
degree  of  energy  and  prudence  throughout  the 
defence.  Some  old  disused  barracks  appeared  to  offer 
,  the  most  promising  I'cfuge.  In  addition  to  the  fami- 
lies of  the  officers,  the  defence  was  embarrassed  by 
the  presence  of  a  number  of  other  non-combatants. 

At  this  time  there  was  living  in  a  semi-royal  state 
at  Bitliur,  a  few  miles  from  Cawnpur,  one  DIuuidu 
Punt,  better  known  as  Nana  Sahib.  This  man,  the 
son  of  a  poor  Koukani  Brahman,  had  been  adopted 


92  INDIA. 

by  Baji  Rtio,  the  ex-Peshwa,  after  his  dcjwsition  from 
the  head  of  the  Mariithas.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
patron,  the  Xana  made  a  chxim  for  the  continuance  to 
himself  of  the  pension  of  eighty  thousand  pounds 
-which  the  former  had  received  from  the  British 
Government — a  ckiim  which  was  not  allowed.  The 
Nana,  who  had  inherited  the  estate  of  BIthur,  to- 
gether with  half  a  million  pounds  sterling  from  Baji 
Rao,  appeared  to  accept  the  unfavorable  decision  of 
the  Company  with  equanimity,  and  thereafter  con- 
tinued to  profess  the  most  hearty  friendship  for  the 
Europeans,  whom  he  entertained  frequently  and  in 
sumptuous  fashion  at  Bithur.  Subsequent  events 
would  indicate  that  this  show  of  amiability  covered  a 
feeling  of  resentful  hatred,  for  the  long  catalogue  of 
atrocities  perpetrated  during  the  ]\Iutiny  contains  no 
fouler  deeds  than  those  attributable  to  this  Maratha 
princeling. 

When  the  outbreak  occurred  at  CaAvnpur  the  Niina 
assumed  the  command  of  the  mutineers.  For  nine- 
teen days  and  nights  the  doomed  garrison  held  out 
against  an  almost  incessant  fire  and  frequent  assaults, 
despite  the  intense  heat  of  the  Indian  midsummer, 
despite  sickness  and  insufficient  food.  At  length, 
sheer  starvation,  and  the  presence  of  a  number  of 
helpless  women  and  children,  forced  the  defenders  to 
accept  the  terms  of  capitulation  oiFered  by  the  Xana. 
It  was  agreed  that  the  English  should  abandon  the 
entrenchment,  with  the  guns  and  treasure ;  that  they 


INDIA   UNDER   BRITISH  RULE.  93 

should  have  safe  coDchict  to  the  river,  aud  that  boats 
should  be  provided  to  take  them  down  to  Allahabad. 
On  the  27th  of  June  four  hundred  and  fifty  persons, 
the  greater  part  of  whom  were  non-combatants,  women 
and  children,  sick  and  wounded,  marched  to  the  river 
bank,  and  were  crowded  on  board  of  forty  budgerows. 
No  sooner  was  the  embarkation  completed,  than  the 
native  rowers  abandoned  the  boats,  in  some  cases  first 
setting  them  on  fire.  Then  from  both  banks  broke 
forth  volleys  of  musketry.  Several  of  the  men  jumped 
into  the  river,  preferring  the  chance  of  death  in  the 
maws  of  the  crocodile  to  the  certainty  of  it  at  the 
hands  of  the  merciless  wretches  ashore.  Of  the  whole 
number  of  Europeans,  but  four  escaped  to  tell  the 
story  of  villainous  treachery.  The  fate  of  those  who 
survived  the  ambuscade  was  even  more  horrible  than 
that  of  the  unfortunates  who  perished  in  the  attack 
upon  the  boats.  When  the  musketry  fire  ceased,  about 
half  the  fugitives  were  found  to  be  alive,  and 
were  dragged  ashore.  The  men  were  separated  from 
their  companions  and  immediately  shot,  while  tlie 
women  and  children  were  confined,  to  await  the 
pleasure  of  Nana  Sahib.  On  the  loth  of  July,  after 
a  defeat  of  his  troops  by  Havelock,  the  Nana  ordered 
tlie  slaughter  of  the  two  lumdrcd  and  five  women  and 
children.  The  helpless  victims  were  remorselessly 
butchered,  and  their  bodies  thrown,  while  yet  many 
of  them  lived,  into  a  neighboring  well. 

The    following   day    Havelock    entered    Cawnjmr, 


94  INDIA. 

but  the  rebels  had  fled.  The  small  force  under 
General  Havelock  had  been  so  greatly  reduced  by 
fighting  and  sickness  that  it  was  utterly  inadequate  to 
the  task  of  opening  the  way  to  Lucknow,  and  the 
prosecution  of  that  project  was  necessarily  postponed. 

Meanwhile,  although  the  condition  of  affairs  at 
Lucknow,  Cawnpur  and  other  stations,  excited  the 
keenest  ap])rehension,  interest  and  endeavor  were 
mainly  centred  upon  the  seat  of  rebellion.  The  tardi- 
ness of  transport  in  the  absence  of  railroads,  the 
necessity  of  contesting  the  road,  and  the  difficulty  of 
assembling  a  sufficient  force,  left  Delhi  in  the  hands 
of  the  rebels  for  well  nigh  four  months.  On  the  14th 
of  September,  after  a  protracted  siege,  which  was 
marked  by  a  number  of  fierce  engagements  without 
the  walls,  the  British  effi^cted  an  entrance  to  the  city. 
Six  days  of  desperate  street  fighting  ensued,  when  the 
ancient  capital  of  the  Mughals  again  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  English.  The  infatuated  king  was  tried 
and  condemned  to  death,  but  this  sentence  was  com- 
muted to  transportation.  Five  years  later  he  died  in 
Ii:ingoon. 

On  the  20th  of  September,  while  the  British  troops 
were  storming  the  palace  at  Delhi,  Havelock  crossed 
the  Ganges,  at  the  head  of  twenty -five  hundred  men, 
and  commenced  the  memorable  movement  which 
resulted  in  the  relief  of  Lucknow.  On  the  21st  he 
defeated  a  large  body  of  the  enemy,  and  captured 
their  guns  ;  on  the  23d  he  fought  the  engagement  of 


Massacre  Ghat,  Cawnpur 


INDIA   UNDER  BRITISH  RULE.  95 

the  Alumbagh ;  on  the  25th  he  cut  his  way  through 
the  streets  of  Lucknow,  and  entered  the  British 
entrenchments  in  the  evening  of  the  same  day.  What 
is  known  as  the  "  Relief  of  Lucknow  "  was  in  reality 
no  more  than  a  reinforcement;  for,  although  Have- 
lock's  action  insured  the  safety  of  the  post,  the  com- 
bined force  was  not  sufficient  to  raise  the  siege,  M'liich 
was  maintained  during  a  further  period  of  sixty  days. 
For  four  long  months  the  little  garrison  at  the  llesi- 
dency  had  been  completely  shut  oif  from  the  outer 
world.  No  news, reached  them  save  bazaar  rumors, 
which  took  the  form  of  extravagant  tales  of  British 
disaster.  The  history  of  the  world  contains  no  story 
of  more  heroic  defence  than  this.  On  the  4th  of 
July  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  had  been  killed  by  the 
bursting  of  a  shell  in  the  room  where  he  lay  already 
wounded.  At  the  beginning  of  the  siege  he  had  said, 
"  We  will  never  surrender ;"  and  with  his  dying 
breath  he  repeated,  "  Never  surrender  !" 

Meanwhile  reinforcements  were  arriving  from 
England,  which  enabled  tlie  British  to  turn  the  tide, 
and  before  the  close  of  the  year  1858,  after  the  bril- 
liant campaigns  of  Sir  Colin  Campbell  and  Sir  Hugh 
Rose,  the  Sepoy  Rebellion  was  finally  suppressed. 

This  dark  e])isode  in  the  history  of  British  India 
is  relieved  by  the  remembrance  of  the  loyally  of  many 
of  the  native  princes  and  pco])le,  notably  the  Sikhs 
and  Gurkhas.  The  Punjab,  with  the  experience  of 
good  government  and  a  lively  recollection  of  former 


96  INDIA. 

oppression,  stood  staunch,  and  was  the  mainstay  of 
the  British  in  the  hour  of  their  most  critical  need. 

On  the  first  day  of  November,  1858,  the  govern- 
ment of  India  was  transferred  from  tlie  East  India 
Company  to  the  Crown,  in  a  proclamation  which 
assured  the  people  that  the  British  Government 
contemplated  no  interference  with  their  caste  or 
religion,  and  which  granted  an  amnesty  to  all  rebels, 
with  the  exception  of  those  who  had  been  directly 
implicated  in  the  murders  of  Europeans. 

Under  the  imperial  rule  India  has  been  free  from 
any  serious  internal  disturbances,  although  more  than 
one  border  war  has  occurred  in  recent  years.  On 
these  occasions,  as  well  as  in  campaigns  abroad,  the 
native  troops  have  performed  valuable  services,  and 
their  loyalty  has  never  been  in  question  since  "  the 
year  of  the  great  madness." 


CHAPTER  VII. 

INDIA    AT    THE    PRESENT   DAY. 

Some  idea  of  the  exteut  aud  complexity  of  the 
machinery  by  means  of  which  British  India  is 
governed,  will  be'  suggested  by  a  consideration  of  the 
diverse  character  of  its  component  parts,  the  im- 
mensity of  its  population,  composed  of  many  races, 
Avith  different  languages  and  varying  customs.  It  is 
the  largest  political  organization  in  the  world,  and 
one  which  in  many  particulars  is  unique.  It  is  per- 
haps as  well  adapted  to  its  purposes  as  human 
ingenuity  could  make  it,  and  it  is  difficult  to  conceive 
of  any  system  which  would  better  conduce  to  the 
general  welfare  of  the  people  and  the  prosperity  of 
the  country. 

The  constitution  of  the  Indian  Government  is 
determined  by  the  British  Parliament.  The  imperial 
policy  is  controlled  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
India  in  the  British  Cabinet,  while  local  administra- 
tion is  decentralized  as  much  as  possible. 

The  general  conduct  of  affairs  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  Viceroy,  who  is  aided  by  the  advict;  of  his 
Council,  which,  however,  he  may  disregard,  although, 
Vol.  I.— 7  97 


98  INDIA. 

as  a  matter  of  fact,  he  seldom,  if  ever,  assumes  so 
grave  a  responsibility.  From  the  Viceroy  orders 
issue  to  the  hciids  of  the  various  provincial  govern- 
ments— to  wit :  the  governors  of  the  Presidencies  of 
Bombay  and  Madras  ;  the  lieutenant-governors  of  the 
Presidency  of  Bengal  and  the  provinces  of  the  Punjab 
and  the  Northwest,  and  the  chief-commissioners  of 
the  Central  Provinces,  and  of  Assam  and  Burma. 
Each  of  these  divisions  is  subdivided  into  a  number 
of  commissionerships,  for  the  local  administration  of 
which  district  officers  are  responsible.  There  is  a 
chain  of  judicial  authorities,  ranging  from  the  judges 
of  the  High  Court  to  the  local  magistrates.  While 
the  judiciary  are  appointed  by  the  Government,  the 
courts  are  entirely  independent  of  the  Executive 
authority.  The  Supreme  Legislative  Council,  of 
which  the  Viceroy  is  president,  makes  laws  affecting 
the  Empire  as  a  whole,  while  the  provinces  have  also 
similar  bodies,  by  whom  laws  of  local  application  are 
framed.  These  councils  each  contain  an  elective 
element  composed  chiefly  of  natives,  the  remainder  of 
the  members  being  made  up  of  nominees  of  the 
Executive.  The  system  involves  an  admirable  ar- 
rangement of  check  and  counter  check.  It  would  be 
impossible  for  the  Viceroy  to  effect  the  passage  of  a 
law  which  was  opposed  to  public  opinion  as  voiced  by  a 
majority  of  the  Legislative  Council.  On  the  other  hand, 
as  he  and  the  Secretary  of  State  have  each  a  power  of 
veto,  no  law  can  go  into  effect  without  their  approval. 


INDIA   AT  THE   PRESENT   DAY.  99 

The  financial  administration  is  centred  in  the 
Minister  of  Finance,  who  is  a  member  of  the  Execu- 
tive Council,  and  is  represented  in  each  of  the 
provinces  by  an  accountant-general.  The  strictly 
local  finance,  however,  is  administered  independently 
by  each  provincial  government. 

The  Post  Office  Department  has  ramifications,  in- 
cluding the  smallest  villages,  and  the  telegraphic 
system  is  almost  as  extensive.  The  Department  of 
Forestry  has  no  superior  anywhere.  There  are 
Departments  of  Education,  Public  Works  and  Rail- 
ways, and  a  medical  establishment  which  is  served 
mainly  by  educated  natives. 

This  vast  mechanism  extends  from  the  seat  of 
government  in  Calcutta  to  the  remotest  village  in  the 
Empire — from  the  Viceroy  to  the  humblest  coolie. 

The  Indian  Civil  Service  is  without  equal  in  the 
world.  The  members  of  it  are  selected  by  competi- 
tive examination  of  the  severest  kind,  and  the  morale 
and  qualifications  of  the  corps  are  of  the  highest 
order.  It  is  from  this  body  that  all  the  most  import- 
ant positions  are  filled,  while  the  vast  number  of 
subordinate  offices  are  held  by  natives. 

The  Indian  army  numbers  about  two  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand,  one-third  of  which  is  British  trooj>s. 
In  addition  to  the  regular  establishment,  there  are 
about  sixty  thousand  reserves  and  volunteers,  trained 
by  English  officers.  The  British  battalions  arc  drawn 
from  England  for  temporary  service,  and  are  Kept  ii|> 


100  INDIA. 

to  full  strength  by  drafts  from  their  home  depots. 
Th(>  native  army  is  kept  up  entirely  by  voluntary 
enlistments.  British  troops  hold  all  the  important 
strate<^ic  positions,  and  the  artillery  arm  of  the  service 
is  furnished  exclusively  by  them. 

If  no  more  could  be  said  than  that  the  present 
government  of  India  was  better  than  any  which  had 
preceded  it,  little  credit  would  accrue  to  its  rulers  on 
that  account ;  but  it  is  probable  that,  considering  the 
nature  of  the  task  and  the  difficulties  encountered  in 
its  accomplishment,  the  administration  of  the  British 
in  recent  times  has  been  as  effective  for  good  as  was 
possible. 

It  has  established  order,  and  has  secured  all 
classes  in  the  peaceful  possession  of  personal  property, 
and  in  the  positive  enjoyment  of  personal  rights.  The 
peasant  no  longer  fears  oppression  by  the  zamindiir, 
and  the  rayat  is  no  longer  burdened  with  excessive 
taxation.  The  byways  of  the  mofassll  are  as  safe  as 
the  streets  of  the  city.  Thagi  has  been  stamped 
out  and  dacoity  suppressed.  The  permanent  value 
thus  created  in  land  is  enhanced  by  a  perfect  system 
of  registration,  which  affords  a  reliable  test  of  the 
validity  of  titles.  Every  holding  has  been  surveyed 
and  its  boundaries  clearly  denned,  so  that  disputes 
are  of  rare  occurrence  and  easy  of  decision,  and  a 
basis  is  afforded  for  an  equitable  distribution  of 
taxes. 

In  the  matter  of  religion  the  Government  has  main-i 


INDIA   AT  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  101 

tained  a  strict  neutrality,  while  protecting  each  sect 
against  any  outrage  or  annoyance  at  the  hands  of 
another.  In  the  treatment  of  Christian  missions  it 
has  not  deviated  from  its  policy  of  scrupulous 
impartiality  ;  they  enjoy  the  same  freedom  which  is 
assured  to  other  religions,  but  no  more  than  that. 

Without  exercising  any  interference  in  the  manage- 
ment of  religious  institutions,  the  Government  has 
continued  to  them  all  endowments  made  by  former 
native  rulers,  and  has  respected  their  titles  to  property 
emanating  from  the  same  sources. 

While  countenancing  local  customs,  in  so  far  as 
they  are  consistent  with  Christian  civilization,  it  has 
prohibited  infanticide,  self-immolation  by  widows  and 
human  sacrifices. 

The  splendid  code  of  laws  by  which  India  is 
governed  has  been  framed  with  a  constant  regard 
for  the  rights,  the  needs  and  the  happiness  of  the 
native  population.  It  has  established  perfect  civil 
authority,  and  has  materially  raised  the  status  of  the 
masses.  Previous  to  British  rule  the  Pariali  classes 
had  no  recognized  rights  worth  considering,  even  under 
rulers  of  their  own  race.  To-day  the  low-caste 
menial  may,  and  frequently  does,  bring  suit  against 
the  Brahman,  against  his  European  master,  or  even 
against  the  Government.  In  the  construction  of  the 
statutory  law  the  pre-existing  codes  and  customs  have 
been  disturbed  as  little  as  possible. 

Perhaps  the  blessing  wliich  most  directly  affects  the 


102  INDIA. 

lower  classes  is  the  great  reform  in  the  administration 
of  petty  offices.  It  is  the  subordinate  order  of  officials, 
now  as  formerly  composed  of  natives,  which  comes 
most  closely  in  touch  with  the  peasantry.  Prior  to 
the  British  occupation,  and  especially  under  the 
IMuhammadan  regimes,  these  deputies  of  cruel  and 
rapacious  masters  had  practically  unlimited  authority, 
and  almost  invariably  adopted  corrupt  and  oppressive 
methods  in  their  dealings  with  the  helpless  rayats. 
Under  the  existent  system  the  native  official,  measured 
by  AYestern  standards,  is  a  man  of  integrity  and  some 
desrree  of  education  and  enlio-hteument.  He  is  under 
close  supervision,  is  well  paid,  and,  as  a  further  induce- 
ment to  good  behavior  and  effective  discharge  of  his 
duties,  is  offered  the  prospect  of  promotion  and  pension. 
The  system  of  education  maintained  by  the  state 
embraces  the  whole  range  of  scholastic  institutions, 
from  the  university  to  the  primary  school  of  the 
village.  These  facilities  are  open  to  all  creeds  and 
races  alike,  and  to  all  classes  Avithout  distinction. 
They  have  been  taken  advantage  of  to  a  great  extent 
by  the  upper  and  middle  classes,  and  there  is  an  in- 
creasing tendency  on  the  j^art  of  the  lower  classes  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  opportunities  for  education 
thus  affi)rded.  The  scope  of  instruction  offered  in- 
cludes, besides  a  liberal  education  in  the  common 
meaning  of  the  phrase,  the  study  of  the  many  lan- 
guages of  India  and  the  history  and  literature  of  the 
country. 


INDIA   AT  THE  TEESENT  DAY.  103 

The  principles  of  sanitation  have  been  applied  to 
the  cities  and  towns  with  a  success  which  is  attested 
by  the  decrease  in  mortality  and  the  disappearance  of 
diseases  from  many  localities  where  they  had  been 
endemic  for  ages.  The  interior  of  the  country  has 
been  covered  with  free  medical  dispensaries  and  hos- 
pitals, evidencing  to  the  humblest  and  most  remote  sub- 
ject the  care  of  the  state  for  his  health  and  well-being. 

The  efforts  of  the  British  Government  to  eradicate 
famine,  or  to  minimize  the  eifects  of  it,  have  been 
stupendous.  "  It  has,  with  an  outlay  of  capital  vast 
even  from  an  English  point  of  view,  set  up  a  system 
of  irrigation  the  grandest  in  engineering  conception, 
the  noblest  in  scientific  skill,  that  has  ever  been  seen 
in  any  age  or  country."  The  outcome  has  been  to 
blot  out  extensive  famine  districts  from  the  map,  and 
to  greatly  lessen  the  results  of  drought  in  others. 

Inter-communication  between  all  points  has  been 
rendered  comparatively  easy  by  the  maintenance  of 
the  trunk  roads  which  were  laid  out  under  the  native 
rulers  and  the  extension  of  the  system  by  a  network 
of  district  roads.  All  the  j)rlncipal  towns  and  cities 
of  the  Empire  are  now  connected  by  railroad  and  tele- 
graph. There  are  in  operation  nearly  24,000  miles  of 
railway,  over  which  was  carried  in  the  year  1899-1900 
a  number  of  passengers  in  excess  of  163,000,000,  and 
freight  to  the  amount  of  40,598,520  tons. 

Increase  in  population  is  one  of  the  most  reliable 
criterions  of  national  prosj)erity.     This  test  may  be 


104  INDIA. 

apjilicd  to  India  Mith  the  most  satisfactory  results. 
The  census  of  1901  showed  a  jjopulation  of  upwards 
of  294,000,000  in  Britisli  India.  These  figures  show 
an  increase  in  excess  of  100,000,000  since  the  acces- 
sion of  Queen  A'ictoria  to  the  throne,  and  of  ever 
150,000,000  since  the  establishment  of  the  British 
dominion,  about  a  century  ago.  In  other  words,  the 
j)()pulati()n  of  India  has  more  than  doubled  in  the 
last  hundred  years.  The  increase  is  due  to  the  com- 
paratively peaceful  condition  of  the  country  during 
this  period,  to  the  construction  of  extensive  irrigation 
w'orks  and  to  the  improvement  in  sanitary  conditions. 
The  present  average  of  two  hundred  inhabitants  to 
the  square  mile  leaves  room  for  much  greater  expan- 
sion without  danger  of  overcrowding. 

About  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  rural  population  live 
more  or  less  directly  by  the  tillage  of  the  soil.  The 
condition  of  small  land-holders  has  been  infinitely 
improved,  and  the  wages  of  agricultural  laborers  have 
increased  about  forty  per  cent. 

The  artisan  classes  of  the  cities  live  under  condi- 
tions incalculably  superior  to  those  of  any  previous 
time,  and  their  remuneration  is  at  least  double  what 
it  was  two  generations  ago. 

The  industries  have  thriven  greatly,  although  they 
have  undergone  considerable  change  in  response  to 
new  demands  and  changed  conditions.  Some  indus- 
tries, of  importance  from  the  artistic  rather  than  the 
economic  point  of  view,  have  died  out,  but  others  of 


Potters  at  "Work 


INDIA   AT  THE  PRESENT   DAY.  105 

a  similar  character  survive.  Among  the  latter  may 
be  mentioned  inlaying  in  wood  and  horn,  metal  carv- 
ing, enameling  and  silk  embroidery.  European 
capital  and  machinery,  in  combination  with  native 
material  and  labor,  have  been  employed  under 
Ein'0])ean  supervision  in  the  prosecution  of  new 
euterj)rises.  These  embrace  mills  for  the  manufacture 
of  cotton,  jute  and  other  textiles ;  soap,  sugar,  oil, 
lac,  ice  and  other  factories  ;  tile  works  and  potteries  ; 
iron  and  brass  foundries  ;  tanneries  and  other  works. 
Among  the  new  products  of  India,  tea  and  coffee, 
which  are  extensively  cultivated,  are  especially  note- 
worthy. The  mining  of  coal  and  iron  has  been 
successfully  carried  on,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  in  the  future  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country 
will^be  much  more  extensively  developed. 

Trade,  internal  and  foreign,  has  developed  im- 
mensely. During  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria  the 
ocean-borne  trade  increased  from  11x2,000,000  to 
nearly  Rx200,000,000,'  while  in  the  same  period  the 
external  ship-borne  commerce  increased  fourteen- 
fold.  Notwithstanding  the  great  reduction  in  the 
taxation  of  the  masses,  the  revenues  of  the  Govern- 

'  The  official  method  of  expressing  large  sums  in  tens  of  rupees, 
which  is  generally  followed  by  modern  works  of  reference,  has 
been  adopted  in  these  volumes.  The  sign  Ex  is  merely  an 
abbreviation  of  "  rupees  ten."  The  face  value  of  the  rupee  is  two 
shillings,  and  the  signs  Rx  and  £  would  be  interchangcal)lc,  but 
for  the  fact  that  the  depreciation  in  silver  lias  reduced  the  exchange 
value  of  the  rujjcc  to  about  one  .shilling  and  sixpence. 


106  INDIA. 

ment  have  increased  fourfold  since  the  British  occu- 
pation, and  at  the  present  time  exceed  RxlOO;000;000 
annually. 

While  the  British  dominion  in  India  is  under 
existing;  conditions  unquestionably  stable,  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  the  poj)ulation  contains  discordant 
elements,  which  might  be  awakened  to  active  antag;- 
onism  in  the  event  of  a  serious  blow  to  British 
prestige  or  power.  These  elements  are  to  be  found 
in  uncompromising  religious  leaders  among  both 
INIuhammadans  and  Bnihmans,  in  discontented  de- 
scendants of  grandees  and  hereditary  office-holders, 
and  in  some  of  the  more  remote  tribes,  who,  fail- 
ing even  yet  to  realize  the  power  of  Great  Britain, 
might  be  tempted  to  rise  in  rebellion  upon  the 
occurrence  of  an  event  in  India  or  elsewhere  tend- 
ing to  shake  that  power.  Probably  a  more  than 
sufficient  offset  against  these  adverse  possibilities  is  to 
be  found  in  the  unquestionable  loyalty  of  the  native 
princes,  who  govern  more  than  sixty  millions  of  the 
people,  and  would  exert  a  considerable  influence  out- 
side of  their  own  domains  ;  in  the  natural  aversion  of 
property  interests  to  revolution,  which  would  throw 
the  land-owners  and  capitalists  upon  the  side  of  the 
Government ;  and  in  the  spirit  of  genuine  loyalty 
which  pervades  the  native  army  and  is  constantly 
growing  in  strength. 

Tlie  agricultural  classes,  which,  together  with  the 
laborers  and  artisans  of  the  cities,  make  up  by  far  the 


INDIA  AT  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  107 

greater  portion  of  the  population,  shoukl,  if  guided 
by  self-interest,  be  counted  upon  to  support  the 
Government  against  the  danger  of  subversion  ;  but 
history  proves  that  the  mass  is  an  uncertain  factor  in 
political  crises.  An  impartial  view  of  the  conditions 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  Great  Britain  will  never 
lose  her  Indian  Empire,  except  as  a  result  of  reverses 
elsewhere. 


CHAPTER  yill. 


THE    PEOPLE. 


It  has  been  customary  on  the  part  of  writers  upon 
India  to  describe  the  population  as  consisting  of 
Hindus,  Muhammadans  and  Aborigines.  A  more 
comprehensive  classification  takes  cognizance  of  the 
fact  that  the  first  are  not  in  reality  one  race.  Among 
them  the  two  chief  castes  of  Bruhraan  and  Rajput  are 
of  pure  Aryan  descent,  while  the  bulk  of  so-called 
Hindus  either  belong  to  non-Aryan  stock  or  are  of 
mixed  ancestry. 

What  traces  remain  of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of 
the  country  somewhat  resemble  those  left  by  the 
primitive  tribes  of  Europe.  In  the  valley  of  the 
Nerbudda  have  been  found  weapons  which  were  used 
by  a  race  antedating  that  which  produced  the  stone 
axes  and  utensils  discovered  in  other  parts.  The 
Stone  Age  was  followed  by  a  period  during  which  the 
people  turned  iron,  copper  and  gold  to  purjwses  of 
ornament  and  utility.  The  remains  of  these  people 
have  been  disinterred  from  the  mounds  they  con- 
structed  over   their   dead,  but  they  left   no   records 

108 


THE  PEOPLE.  109 

whatever;  indeed,  the  simplest  hieroglyphics  must 
have  been  unknown  to  them. 

The  aboriginal  or  n on- Aryan  races  are  constantly 
mentioned  m  portions  of  the  Veda,  written  at  least  a 
thousand  years  before  the  present  era,  as  "  black 
skins,"  in  contemptuous  comparison  with  the  fair 
complexions  of  the  invaders.  Thus  in  remote  times 
was  drawn  in  the  far  East  a  "  color  line  "  more  rigid 
than  anything  we  know  of  in  America.  At  the  time 
of  their  influx  to  India  caste  was  not  an  institution  of 
the  Aryans,  but  when  it  afterwards  became  so  they 
designated  it  by  their  Sanskrit  word  "  varna,^  signify- 
ing color. 

The  Aryans,  literally  "  nobles,"  had  their  earliest 
home  on  the  central  Asian  plateau,  whence  they 
migrated  at  diiferent  times  and  in  various  directions. 
One  branch  founded  the  Persian  nation,  and  others 
peopled  Europe,  giving  to  the  world  the  great  empires 
of  Greece  and  Rome ;  while  yet  another  offshoot 
established  itself  in  England.  Thus  the  American  of 
to-day  may  claim  the  same  ancient  origin  as  the 
Brdhman  and  Rajput,  who  thousands  of  years  ago 
availed  themselves  of  the  northwest  gateway  of  India 
to  enter  and  overrun  the  country.  One  has  only  to 
consult  the  dictionary  to  find  that  the  mother  tongue 
of  both  was  iha  same.  The  earliest  words  of  every 
language — those  of  domestic  application — are  in  many 
instances  in  the  English  language  derived  from 
ancient   Sanskrit   roots.     Thus   we    have    daughter, 


110  INDIA. 

from  duhi-t^r,  one  who  milks,  denoting  the  occupation 
of  the  younger  female  members  of  a  uomadic  race  ; 
mother,  from  ma-tar,  one  who  measures,  in  reference 
probably  to  the  office  of  distributor  of  food  to  the 
family ;  widow,  from  vi,  without,  and  cUiava,  husband ; 
and  so  pa-tar,  one  who  protects ;  go,  cow,  and  scores 
of  other  equally  unquestionable  derivations. 

The  relationship  is  exhibited  to  this  day  in  physical 
traits.  The  high-caste  Hindu  has  a  facial  mould 
similar  to  our  own  ;  his  eyes  are  frequently  blue  or 
gray,  and  his  complexion  as  light  as  that  of  the 
people  of  Southern  Europe. 

The  ancient  religions  of  Europe  and  India  have  a 
common  origin.  The  Vedic  Pantheon  and  the  Greek 
mythology  are  derived  from  the  same  source,  and  in 
the  Christian  churches  of  to-day  the  Deity  is  invoked 
under  names  which  are  legacies  from  our  Aryan  fore- 
fathers. 

The  Vedas  recount,  with  a  great  deal  of  circum- 
stantial detail,  the  journeyings  of  these  early  people 
toward  the  south.  The  earliest  hymns  find  them  on 
the  farther  side  of  the  Himalayas,  and  their  progress 
is  depicted  in  word  pictures  as  they  travel,  slowly  but 
persistently,  toward  their  goal.  We  see  them,  now 
fighting  against  the  aborigines,  and  anon  at  war 
among  themselves.  The  patriarchal  system  existed  in 
effect,  although  they  elected  a  king  or  head  patriarch. 
The  marriage  institution  was  strictly  respected,  and 
woman  held   an  honorable   place   with   them.     She, 


THE  PEOPLE.  Ill 

jointly  with  her  husband,  controlled  the  household 
and  took  part  in  public  worship  by  his  side.  The 
immolation  of  widows  was  quite  unknown.  There  is, 
in  fact,  nothing  in  the  sacred  books  or  laws  of  the 
Hindus  enjoining  or  even  recommending  the  practice. 
In  later  years  the  Brilhmans  established  it,  on  the 
basis  of  a  pure  fiction,  for  their  own  purposes,  which 
they  were  easily  able  to  do,  since  they  happened  to  be 
the  only  class  that  had  access  to  the  original  books 
and  could  read  them. 

The  Vedas  show  us  the  Aryan  tribes  settled  in 
villages,  and  even  towns  of  considerable  magnitude, 
possessing  herds  and  flocks  and  tilling  the  soil.  They 
had  metal  workers  and  other  artisans,  and  used  cattle 
as  the  standard  of  exchange.  They  fought  in  chariots 
and  upon  horseback,  but  as  yet  the  elephant  was 
employed  solely  as  a  beast  of  burden.  Like  the 
Israelites  of  old,  they  wandered  about  in  clans, 
attracted  by  good  pasturage,  a  fertile  soil,  or  an 
abundance  of  water. 

These  vigorous  nativ^es  of  a  northern  clime  gradu- 
ally rolled  back  the  aborigines  before  them,  and  as 
the  tide  of  Aryan  invasion  continued  to  flow  through 
the  Himalayan  gateway,  the  earlier  invaders  wei'c 
themselves  forced  forward  and  southward,  the  process 
of  advance  on  the  one  side  and  retreat  on  the  other 
being  continued  until  the  non-Aryan  tribes  were  com- 
pelled to  take  refuge  in  the  less  accessible  and  more 
remote  parts  of  tiie  country.     The  remnants  of  these 


1 1 2  INDIA. 

dispossessed  tribes  we  find  scattered  over  India  to-day, 
for  the  most  part  ensconced  in  wild  and  hilly  regions. 

]\lany  oi"  the  aboriginal  refngecs  found  shelter  in 
the  high  jungle  country  at  the  south  of  the  peninsula. 
Through  all  the  strange  changes  of  the  intervening 
centuries  they  have  lived  on  in  their  primitive  fashion, 
and  the  present  century  finds  them  little  more 
advanced  toward  civilization  than  when  they  were  ifl 
undisturbed  possession  of  the  Deccan. 

The  Mundavers,  for  instimce,  are  a  migratory  tribe, 
who  never  construct  a  permanent  dwelling,  but  wander 
about  their  hills  and  vales,  driving  their  cattle  before 
them,  and  seeking  shelter  in  caves,  or  huts  of  boughs, 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year. 

The  Puliars  are  even  nearer  to  a  state  of  barbarism. 
They  produce  nothing,  subsist  upon  wild  fruits  and 
vegetables,  and  small  animals  and  reptiles.  They 
maintain  the  old  demon-worship,  and  are  probably 
addicted  to  worse  practices  than  Ave  are  aAvare  of. 

The  little  Kaders  of  these  parts  have  some  just 
claim  to  their  title  of  "  Lords  of  the  Hills,"  for  their 
descent  is  from  an  ancestry  of  a  higher  type  than  that 
of  the  wild  tribes  about  them,  by  whom  their  superi- 
ority is  acknowdedged. 

The  Central  Provinces  contain  large  numbeis  of 
the  aborigines.  Here,  as  in  the  south,  are  many 
tribes  that  persistently  shun  the  approach  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  hide  themselves  in  the  deepest  recesses  of 
the  forest.     The  bow  and  flint-tipped  arrow  is  still  in 


Hill  Men  of    Ladak 


THE  PEOPLE.  113 

use  among  them,  and  some  are  so  wild  that  the  sight 
of  a  stranger  is  the  signal  for  a  general  abandonment 
of  tlie  village. 

In  Orissa  is  a  numerous  tribe  of  Patuas,  or  "  leaf- 
wearers,"  who  were  only  recently  persuaded  by  the 
English  to  discard  their  vegetable  garments  for  loin 
cloths. 

Naturally  the  Himalayas  afforded  havens  of  refuge 
to  a  great  many  of  the  non-Aryan  inhabitants  of 
Hindustan,  and  their  descendants  are  numerous  and 
various  there  to-day. 

Not  all  of  the  aboriginal  tribes,  however,  have 
remained  in  so  low  a  state.  Apart  from  the  vast 
numbers  that  were  absorbed  by  the  dominating  races, 
many  clans  are  to  be  found  in  different  parts  of  India 
exhibiting  various  advanced  degrees  of  civilization, 
although  still  following  a  simple  mode  of  life,  apart 
from  the  rest  of  the  world. 

The  Santals  inhabit  the  hills  of  lower  Bengal, 
where  they  maintain  village  communities,  and  hold 
little  or  no  communication  with  the  neighboring 
plainsmen.  They  number  at  least  a  million,  and, 
unlike  most  of  these  isolated  tribes,  exhibit  a  tendency 
toward  survival  and  development.  They  are  a  peace- 
ful people,  successful  as  husbandmen,  and  self-govern- 
ing, under  a  sim[)le  but  effective  system.  The 
prosperity  of  this  community  years  ago  excited  the 
cupidity  of  that  bane  of  the  country,  the  usurious 
Hindu  money-lender,  and  in  a  short  while  these 
Vol.  I.— 8 


114  INDIA. 

insidious  leeches  owned  the  unsophisticated  Siintals, 
hody  and  soul.  Death  afforded  no  relief  to  the 
iamily;  for,  according  to  the  simple  ethics  of  these 
people,  the  debts  of  the  father  were  assumed  by  the 
son.  At  length  the  condition  became  unbearable. 
Then  (in  1855)  was  seen  the  pathetic  sight  of  thirty 
thousand  men  leaving  the  hills  which  their  forefathers 
had  occupied  for  centuries,  to  lay  their  grievances 
before  the  mystical  demi-god  who  held  his  court  at 
Calcutta.  Carrying  their  customary  bows  and  arroMS, 
and  expecting  to  subsist  by  the  chase,  they  com- 
menced their  march.  But  soon  they  were  in  a  country 
unlike  their  own ;  every  rood  of  land  was  private 
property,  and  game  was  scarce.  With  many  days  of 
weary  walking  still  before  them,  the  unfortunate 
Sdntals  were  assailed  by  hunger,  and  naturally  enough 
helped  themselves  to  the  nearest  supplies  of  food, 
without  inquiring  too  particularly  into  the  question 
of  ownership.  Thus  they  were  brought  into  conflict 
with  the  authorities,  and  driven  back  to  their  homes, 
not  without  bloodshed.  However,  the  movement  had 
a  hapjiv  finale,  for  the  Government  investigated  their 
condition  and  righted  their  difficulties ;  so  that  to-day 
they  are  a  ]irosperous  and  contented  people. 

The  village  communities  of  the  Sautals  are 
governed  by  hereditary  headmen.  Expulsion  from 
the  tribe  is  the  most  severe  punishment  inflicted. 
They  are  demon-worshipers,  and  ])urn  their  dead. 
Marriages  are  not  contracted  until  both  parties  have 


THE  PEOPLE.  115 

reached  the  age  of  puberty,  ami  but  one  wife  is 
allowed,  unless  she  proves  to  be  barren. 

The  Khands  number  about  one  hundred  thousand 
souls,  who  have  their  homes  in  the  hills  of  Orissa. 
Each  family  forms  a  community,  which  holds  property 
in  common  and  is  ruled  by  a  hereditary  chief.  Trial  by 
ordeal  is  one  of  their  peculiar  institutions.  A  Khitnd 
secures  his  bride  by  capture,  and  he  may  take  a 
second  wife  only  with  the  consent  of  the  firet. 
Living  among  the  Ivliands  is  a  lower  race,  which  has 
been  held  in  a  state  of  slavery,  though  treated  with 
kindness.  These  people  live  on  the  outskiits  of  the 
villages,  and  are  not  allowed  to  have  any  social  inter- 
course with  the  Khands,  but  are  required  to  perform 
menial  labor.  Among  their  duties  was  that  of  pro- 
viding victims  for  the  biennial  human  sacrifice,  which 
the  Khands  practiced  until  the  institution  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  British  about  sixty  years  ago. 

The  non-Aryans  have  no  records  from  which  any- 
thing of  their  early  history  or  origin  can  be  learned,  but 
their  languages  lead  to  the  inference  that  they  are  the 
outcome  of  Tibeto-Burman,  Kolarian  and  Dravidian 
immigrations.  The  first  two  seem  to  have  been 
effected  through  the  northeastern  passages,  and  the 
last  by  way  of  the  northwest. 

It  was  not  until  some  time  after  their  invasion  of 
Hindustan  that  social  distinctions  began  to  be  ob- 
served among  the  Aryan  settlers.  In  the  nature  of 
things,   however,  certain    of    their    number    became 


1 1  G  INDIA. 

distin^uislied  for  their  military  prowess,  wliilc  cer- 
tain others  disphiyed  an  aptness  for  sacerdotal  duties, 
whereas  the  mass  of  the  people  exhibited  no  talents 
of  a  higher  order  than  such  as  qualitied  them  for  the 
vocation  of  husbandmen.  Thus  gradually  arose  the 
Four  Castes — priests,  or  Brahmans;  warriors,  or 
Rajputs ;  agriculturists,  or  Vaisyas ;  and  serfs,  or 
Siidras.  The  last  were  non-Aryans,  who,  being  but 
"  once  born,"  could  never  rise  to  the  grade  of  their 
"  twice  born  "  Aryan  masters. 

A  long  struggle  for  supremacy  between  the  Brah- 
mans and  Ivshattriyas  or  Rajputs  resulted  in  favor  of 
the  former,  who  have  ever  since  maintained  their 
position  as  the  highest  class  of  the  Indian  people. 
The  life  of  the  Brahman  was  strictly  regulated,  even 
to  the  minutest  details  of  daily  observance.  It  was 
mapped  out  in  four  distinct  stages  :  First,  Brahma- 
chari,  or  Studentship  ;  second,  Grihastha,  or  Mar- 
riage ;  third,  Vauaprastha,  or  the  Hermit  Stage ; 
fourth,  Sannvasi,  or  the  Condition  of  the  Devotee. 
The  religious  life  began  with  the  investiture  of  the 
sacred  thread,  significant  of  the  second  birth,  after 
which  his  youth  and  the  early  years  of  his  manhood 
were  to  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  holy  books. 
During  the  second  stage  he  reared  a  family  and  lived 
in  the  world,  although  his  life  was  still  subject  to  a 
rigid  code  of  conduct ;  he  exercised  a  constant  curb 
upon  his  passions,  and  refrained  from  all  kinds  of 
excesses.     In  the  next  stage  he  retired  to  the  forest, 


THE  PEOPLE.  117 

giving  himself  up  to  the  life  of  a  recluse,  and  spend- 
ing the  years  in  contemplation  and  religious  observ- 
ances. In  the  last  and  fourth  stage  he  went  forth  as 
a  purified  ascetic,  immune  to  the  temptations  of  the 
world,  and  heedless  of  physical  discomforts  or  desires. 
He  depended  for  his  subsistence  upon  voluntary  gifts, 
which  were  never  lacking,  and  engaged  himself 
solely  in  the  effort  to  achieve  absorption  in  the  primal 
entity. 

"  The  Briilimans,  therefore,  were  a  body  of  men 
who,  in  an  early  stage  of  this  world's  history,  bound 
themselves  by  a  rule  of  life,  the  essential  precepts  of 
which  were  self-culture  and  self-restraint.  The 
Brahmans  of  the  present  day  are  the  result  of  three 
thousand  years  of  hereditary  education  and  temper- 
ance, and  they  have  evolved  a  type  of  mankind  quite 
distinct  from  the  surrounding  population.  Even  the 
passing  stranger  in  India  marks  them  out  alike  from 
the  bronzed -cheeked,  large -limbed,  leisure -loving 
Rajput,  or  warrior,  of  Aryan  descent,  and  from  the 
dark-skinned,  flat-nosed,  thick-lipped  low  castes  of 
non-Aryan  origin,  with  their  short  bodies  and  bullet 
heads.  The  Brahman  stands  apart  from  both,  tall  and 
slim,  with  finely-modeled  lips  and  nose,  fair  com- 
plexion, high  forehead  and  slightly  cocoanut  shape 
skull — the  man  of  self-centred  refinement.  Ho  is  an 
example  of  a  class  becoming  the  ruling  power  in  a 
country,  not  by  force  of  arms,  but  by  the  vigor  of 
hereditary  culture  and  temix)rance." 


118  INDIA. 

The  high-caste  Brahman  looks  upon  the  European 
with  something  of  a  sense  of  superiority,  if  not  con- 
tempt ;  for  is  not  the  swarthy  Oriental  a  member  of 
the  oldest  aristocracy  in  the  world? — an  aristocracy 
which  had  a  literature  and  a  system  of  science  when 
the  Briton  was  an  unlettered,  skin-dad  savage;  an 
aristocracy  which  has  attained  a  greater  ascendency 
over  the  masses,  and  has  maintained  its  influence 
longer  than  any  other.  For  example,  you  may  see  some 
sleek,  self-satisfied  baniya,  whose  money-bags  would 
fill  a  good-sized  vault,  and  whose  jewels  would  pay  a 
king's  ransom — see  him  prostrate  himself  before  the 
homeless,  penniless  Brahman,  rich  only — but  vastly 
rich — in  the  sacred  thread  across  his  breast  and  the 
significant  daub  of  ash  upon  his  forehead. 

Pitiful  picture  of  deterioration  as  he  is,  nothing 
can  deprive  him  of  his  rightful  pride  of  ancestry. 
When  in  the  olden  days  the  purest  blood  and  the 
richest  intellect  of  the  people  detached  itself  from  the 
ruck,  and  isolated  itself  by  the  hedge  of  caste,  and 
bound  itself  to  a  life  of  refinement  and  culture,  there 
was  laid  the  foundation  of  a  magnificent  race  of  men, 
whose  downfall  is  due  to  abuse  of  power.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  Brahman  is  fast  slipping  away  from  him 
with  the  spread  of  education  and  the  increase  of 
enlightenment.  The  people  are  beginning  to  under- 
stand that  he  is  no  longer  the  embodiment  of  virtue 
and  morality.  They  are  beginning  to  leara  something 
of  the   fraud   and    deceit   by   which    this   class   has 


High  Caste  Child 


THE  PEOPLE.  119 

imposed  its  yoke  upon  the  masses.  In  many  cases 
the  Brahman  himself  has  helped  to  break  down  the 
barrier  by  availing  himself  of  the  Western  education, 
and  accepting  employment  under  the  British  Govern- 
ment. Many  of  the  more  intellectual  members  of  the 
Brahmanic  Order  have  recognized  the  futility  of  their 
position,  and  while  cherishing  the  pure  and  truthful 
in  the  customs  and  religion  of  their  fathei's,  are 
making  a  courageous  effort  to  weed  out  the  immorali- 
ties and  superstitions  which  have  become  grafted  upon 
them.  Whether  such  institutions  as  the  Brahmo- 
Somaj  are  destined  to  live,  or  whether  they  will 
prove  but  stepping-stones  to  something  more  perma- 
nent, time  alone  can  tell.  In  theory  an  eclectic 
system  of  theology  may  be  sound  ;  in  practice  a  creed 
based  on  compromise  ever  lacks  the  stamina  necessary 
to  stand  the  stress  and  strain  of  religious  conflict. 

One  thing  is  certain  :  modern  conditions  make  it 
impossible  for  any  but  a  recluse  to  adhere  strictly  to 
the  Brahmanic  code  for  the  conduct  of  life.  It  svould 
be  less  difficult  for  a  Pharisee  to  maintain  the  "  hedge 
of  the  law  "  in  the  present  century  than  for  a  Brah- 
man to  observe  the  regulations  of  Manu  relating  to 
his  daily  life.  One  sees  a  common  illustration  of  the 
difficulty  on  the  railroad,  where  the  proud  Brahman 
effaces  the  marks  of  his  heredifciry  superiority  and 
huddles  in  a  carriage  with  the  vulgar  herd  of  Siidras 
and  Pariahs. 

Waiving  humanitarian  considerations  for  an  instant, 


120  INDIA. 

it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  the  extinction  of  caste  might 
create  political  problems  of  an  exceedingly  embarrass- 
ing nature  for  the  British.  Tlie  complications  arising 
from  the  emancipation  of  the  negroes  in  America  give 
but  a  faint  idea  of  the  possible  results  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  social  equality  iu  India.  The  probable 
consequences  of  the  freedom  of  the  Russian  serfs 
would  be  as  nothing  compared  to  it.  However,  so 
deeply-rooted  is  caste,  so  all-pervading  in  its  scope, 
that  its  dissolution  under  any  circumstances  must  be 
the  work  of  centuries. 

While  Sanskrit  was  the  language  of  the  people,  the 
*' perfected  language"  was  only  employed  by  the 
learned,  the  common  people  using  a  debased  form  of 
it,  called  Prakrit,  from  which  the  modern  dialects  of 
India  are  derived.  While  encouraging  the  decadence 
of  Sanskrit  among  the  masses,  the  Brahmans  con- 
tinued its  use,  and  invariably  employed  it  in  writing. 
Thus  they  became  in  the  course  of  time  the  only  per- 
sons who  could  read  the  sacred  books — the  sole 
educated  class  in  the  country.  This  condition  the 
Brahman  took  advantage  of  in  various  ways.  He 
professed  to  find  in  the  Vedas  divine  authority  for 
his  assumption  of  social  superiority ;  he  distorted  the 
text,  or  falsified  it,  to  advance  the  ends  of  his  order, 
and,  in  short,  took  full  advantage  of  the  ignorant 
condition  in  which  he  contrived  to  keep  the  masses. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  advancement  of  the 
country  has  been  greatly  retarded  by  caste;  but  at 


THE  PEOPLE.  121 

the  same  time  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  Brahmans 
have  been  benefactors  to  India  and  to  the  world  at 
large  of  a  no  mean  order. 

The  Brahman  theology,  as  evolved  from  the  ante- 
cedent chaotic  religion  of  their  ancestors,  was  an 
intelligent  system,  comparing  favorably  with  the 
other  great  beliefs  of  the  world.  As  they  understood 
it,  however,  it  was  not  and  is  not  taught  to  the  lower 
orders.  In  the  matter  of  language  they  were  in 
adv-ance  of  all  other  nations.  The  Sanskrit  grammar, 
which  is  at  present  the  foundation  of  philological 
study,  was  compiled  three  or  four  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era. 

In  astronomy  the  Brahmans  made  important  dis- 
coveries, and  gave  much  to  the  Western  world. 
More  than  three  thousand  years  ago  the  Vedas 
divided  the  year  into  three  hundred  and  sixty  days, 
with  an  extra  month  every  five  years  to  make  up  the 
deficiencies. 

The  degree  of  knowledge  to  which  they  attained  in 
the  science  of  medicine  and  surgery  was  remarkable. 
The  system  of  medicine  practiced  by  the  Arabs — 
the  basis  of  all  European  knowledge  in  that  direction 
until  about  three  hundred  years  ago — was  derived 
from  the  Brahmans. 

So  in  law,  literature,  poetry  and  music  their 
achievements  were  extensive  and  important. 

The  era  of  Buddhism  in  India  had  a  great  and 
beneficial  effect  upon  the  national  life  and  character. 


122  INDIA. 

During  upwards  of  one  thousand  years  a  severe 
rivalry  existed  between  the  two  great  religions  in 
India,  and  when  at  last  Brahmanism  prevailed,  and 
the  followers  of  Gautama  sank  into  an  insignificant 
minority,  Buddhism  had  made  an  everlasting  inijiress 
\\\Mm  the  country  " in  the  religion  of  the  people;  in 
the  j)rinciple  of  the  brotherhood  of  man,  with  the 
assertion  of  Avhich  each  new  revival  of  Hinduism 
starts ;  in  the  asylum  which  the  great  Hindu  sect  of 
Vaishnavs  affords  to  women  who  have  fallen  victims 
to  caste  rules,  to  the  widow  and  the  outcast ;  in  that 
gentleness  and  charity  to  all  men  which  take  the  place 
of  a  poor  law  in  India,  and  give  a  high  significance 
to  the  half-satirical  epithet  of  the  '  mild '  Hindu." 

During  several  centuries  before  Christ  there  had 
been  going  on  a  process  of  emigration  to  India  from 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  Central  Asian  plateau. 
About  a  century  before  the  Christian  era  this  move- 
ment became  a  serious  invasion,  and  resulted  in  the 
foundation  of  a  powerful  empire  in  northwestern 
Hindustan,  The  people  who  thus  added  another 
element  to  the  composition  of  the  already  complex 
population  of  India  have  been  somewhat  inexactly 
called  Scythians.  They  were  of  Mughal  origin, 
herdsmen  by  habit  and  warriors  by  instinct.  It  is 
not  impossible  that  these  "  Scythian "  invaders  or 
founders  of  an  Indian  dynasty  were  related  to  the 
"  men  of  an  ignoble  race  who  came  up  from  the  east " 
and  established  the  rule  of  the  Hyksos  in  Egypt ;  at 


THE  PEOPLE.  123 

any  rate,  there  are  sufficient  points  of  resemblance  to 
give  some  color  to  the  conjecture.  The  Scythians 
accepted  the  Buddhist  faith,  and,  their  kingdom  being 
overthrown,  they  became  merged  and  lost  in  the  great 
mass  of  the  people.  They  entered  the  country  in 
great  numbers  at  different  times,  and  their  descend- 
ants make  up  a  large  proportion  of  the  population  of 
the  frontier  provinces  at  this  day. 

The  Hindu  nation  then  is  a  conglomeration  of  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  India,  and  the  Scythic  or 
Tartar  invaders,  with  the  early  Aryan  settlers. 

We  have  mentioned  tlie  four  great  divisions  or 
castes  of  the  early  Hindu  nation.  These  were  soon 
multiplied,  and  as  occupation  and  geographical  posi- 
tion, as  well  as  racial  differences,  constituted  the  bases 
of  caste  distinctions,  the  number  of  these  divisions 
continued  to  increase  until  at  present  there  are  at 
least  three  thousand  castes  recognized  in  India.  Mem- 
bers of  different  castes  may  not  intermarry,  nor  may 
they  enter  into  close  social  relations  with  each  other. 
One  may  not  touch  food  prepared  by  another  of  a 
lower  caste,  nor  may  those  of  different  castes  eat 
together.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand that  being  cast  out  of  a  tribe  or  sept  is  the 
most  severe  penalty  that  can  be  inflicted.  The  man 
without  a  caste  becomes  a  paraiyan,  or  pariah — the 
lowest  of  the  low.  He  shares  the  name  and  almost 
the  condition  of  the  ownerless  and  homeless  village 
dog.     His   own    family   are   strangers   t<j   him.     He 


124  INDIA. 

is  "a  man  witliout  a  country"  in  the  land  of  his 
birtli. 

The  present  religion  of  the  Hindus  is  an  adaptation 
of  the  old  Vedic  theology,  the  Buddhist  philosophy, 
and  the  nou-Arvan  ritual. 

The  two  priiiei})al  forms  of  the  Brahmanism  of  to- 
day are  Siva  and  Vishnu  worship.  Siva  in  his  more 
refined  conceptions  is  the  god  of  the  Brahmans,  and 
in  his  grosser  aspects  that  of  the  lowest  castes.  He 
is  worshiped  in  many  forms,  under  different  names, 
and  his  images  are  generally  symbolical  of  his  dual 
character — Destroyer  and  Reproducer.  The  linga  is 
his  universal  symbol,  and  the  bull  is  consecrated  to 
him.  According  to  the  Brahmauical  conception,  he  is 
an  ascetic ;  the  low  caste  non-Aryan  depicts  him  as  a 
bloodthirsty  creature  of  terrible  aspect.  Until  re- 
cently the  latter  was  in  the  habit  of  appeasing  him 
with  human  sacrifices,  and  at  the  present  time 
sacrifices  birds  and  animals  to  the  dread  deity. 

Vishnu  is  the  friend  of  man,  the  most  human  of 
the  gods,  having  passed  hundreds  of  years  upon  the 
earth  in  his  various  incarnations.  His  appearances 
as  Rama  and  as  Krishna  are  recounted  in  the  two 
great  Hindu  epics.  He  is  pleased  by  gifts  of  flowers, 
but  the  shedding  of  blood  is  an  ofiFence  against  him. 
He  is  the  god  of  the  middle  classes,  the  bankers,  the 
merchants,  the  traders. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  educated  Hindu  is,  with  few 
exceptions,  a  theist.     While  extending  homage  to  some 


THE  PEOPLE.  125 

form  of  Siva  or  Vishnu,  he  considers  it  but  a  medium 
for  the  adoration  of  the  Supreme  Being,  Parameswara. 
His  act  is  the  manifestation  of  the  desire  to  evoke  a 
personal  interest,  and  is  somewhat  analogous  to  the 
custom  in  mediaeval  Europe  of  invoking  the  protection 
of  particular  saints.  The  same  feeling  induces  the 
village  community  to  set  up  a  local  deity,  whose 
symbol  may  be  a  mis-shapen  stone  or  the  stump  of  a 
tree. 

The  Muhammadan  population  is  made  up  of  an 
even  greater  Variety  of  nationalities,  and  includes 
Persians,  Turkimin,  Afghans,  Mughals,  and  several 
otlier  races.  The  barriers  of  caste  and  religion,  as 
well  as  marked  physical  dissimilarities,  have  prevented 
these  people  from  amalgamating  with  the  Hindus  to 
any  considerable  extent.  Although  each  has  adopted 
some  of  the  customs  and  dress  of  the  other,  some 
distinctiv^e  characteristic  is  always  maintained  by 
Hindu  and  Muhammadan ;  they  may  be  similarly 
attired,  but  the  former  will  fasten  his  tunic  upon  the 
right  side,  and  the  latter  upon  the  left. 

Nevertheless,  the  ]\fussulmin  of  India  have  been 
greatly  influenced  by  their  contact  with  the  Hindus, 
and  the  difference,  which  is  often  great,  between  the 
Muhammadan  of  Hindustiin  and  his  co-religionist  of 
Aral)ia,  or  Central  Asia,  is  in  the  main  due  to  that 
influence. 

The  Muhammadan  ]M)pulation  lias  become  iniprog- 
nated  with  the  spirit  of  caste,  which  has  taken  root 


126  INDIA. 

the  more  readily  owing  to  tlie  Diimcrous  sects  into 
Avhieh  the  followers  of  the  Prophet  are  divided.  To 
the  simple  rules  for  the  conduct  of  daily  life  enjoined 
by  the  Kuriin  have  been  added  a  number  of  Hindu- 
like  observances,  based  for  the  most  part  upon  sense- 
less superstition.  These  control  minute  details  of 
dress,  f(X)d  and  daily  routine.  The  early  marriage  of 
the  Hindus  has  been  adopted,  and  the  Muhammadan 
ceremony  has  been  made  to  embrace  many  of  the 
Hindu  features ;  so  with  the  ceremonies  attendant 
u[X)n  child-birth,  naming  of  infants,  and,  indeed,  most 
of  the  important  occasions  of  life. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

BOMBAY,    ELEPHANTA,    KANHARI,    KARLI. 

When  the  Portuguese,  sailing  up  the  Mahibar 
coast,  entered  the  little  archipelago  near  its  northern 
extremity,  they  fitly  named  their  anchorage  "  Bom 
Bahia,"  or  "  Good  Bay,"  for  few  better  harbors  exist. 
Later,  when  they  deeded  the  island  to  the  English 
monarch  as  part  of  the  dower  of  their  princess,  little 
did  they  dream  that  its  paltry  area  of  twenty-two 
square  miles  would  eventually  hold  the  finest  city  in 
the  East,  with  a  population  of  over  eight  hundred 
thousand  souls. 

Bombay,  the  commercial  capital,  is  in  every  respect 
save  one  justified  in  the  proud  title  of  ''  Urbs  prima 
in  Indis,"  the  only  flaw  in  her  claim  to  that  dis- 
tinction being  the  fact  that  Calcutta  is  the  seat  of  the 
Imperial  Government.  In  magnificent  public  build- 
ings and  handsome  residences  she  outvies  her  rival 
upon  whom  the  appellation  of  "  City  of  Palaces"  was 
bestowed  in  days  of  less  achievement. 

An  Indian  street  scene  is  always  bright  and  diver- 
sified, but  nowhere  are  these  characteristics  more  j)ro- 
nounced  than  in  Bombay.     The  picture  presented  to 

127 


128  INDIA. 

the  unaccustomed  AVestcrn  eye  is  full  of  color  and 
animation.  Tlie  thoroughfare  between  the  vari-tinted 
and  mauy-baloonied  houses  is  alive  with  a  motley 
crowd  of  bustling  humanity.  The  dark-skinned, 
supple  coolie,  naked  but  for  a  loin  cloth,  glides  by, 
in  striking  contrast  to  the  placid  Parsi  in  snow-white 
garments  and  mitre-like  hat.  The  stalwart  Muham- 
madan,  his  towering  turban  flecked,  perhaps,  with 
significant  green,  stalks  past  with  haughty  mien. 
Every  Oriental  race  and  well  nigh  every  Western 
nation  is  represented  in  the  throng :  Afghan,  Persian, 
Baluchi,  Jew,  Maratha,  Bengali,  Rajput,  Sikh,  each 
distinguishable  by  peculiarities  of  physique,  speech 
and  garb. 

The  picture  is  not  without  its  complement  of  gaily- 
clad  women,  graceful  alike  in  form  and  feature; 
straight  as  the  sapling,  with  sinuous  motion,  they 
thread  their  way  through  the  concourse  of  men  and 
vehicles,  to  the  clanking  accompaniment  of  bangles 
and  anklets.  Some  carry,  poised  upon  their  hips, 
naked  little  brown  babies,  fat  and  happy ;  others 
bear  baskets  or  earthenware  vessels  upon  their  heads. 

There  the  smart  brougham  or  victoria  of  the 
European  tries  to  extricate  itself  from  the  ruck  of 
box-like  shigrams  and  creaking  bullock  carts  of 
humbler  folks ;  here  a  corpulent  babu  in  a  buggy 
contests  the  way  Avith  a  sailor  or  Eurasian  in  a  palki, 
the  bearers  trotting  along  to  a  monotonous  chant. 
The  picture  is  rich  in  minor  details :  the  stalls  of  the 


Hindu  Mother  and  Child 


BOMBAY.  129 

merchants  with  their  multiplicity  of  goods ;  the  fan- 
tastic fakir  and  the  loathsome  mendicant ;  the  barber 
shaving  the  head  of  a  patron  upon  the  footpath, 
while  both  squat  upon  their  haunches  to  facilitate  tlie 
operation  ;  chupprassies  in  neat  uniform  and  sepoys 
in  regimentals ;  bheesties  with  water-skins  slung  from 
the  shoulder;  bhanghy  wallahs  balancing  bamboos 
with  large  pots  suspended  from  each  end ;  these  are 
but  some  of  the  interesting  features  of  a  scene  which 
is  enlivened  by  the  audacious  coloring  of  the  houses, 
the  brilliant  tints  of  chadahs,  the  sonorous  sound  of 
the  ox  bell,  the  monotone  of  the  itinerant  preacher, 
the  shrill  cry  of  tlie  street  vendor,  or  the  twang  of  a 
sitar  from  a  neio-hborino;:  veranda. 

The  European  quarter  is  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
island.  Just  north  of  the  promontory  of  Colaba, 
upon  which  is  situated  the  barracks  of  tlie  English 
troops,  is  the  Apollo  Bunder,  where  rank  and  fashion 
gather  in  the  cool  of  the  evening  to  listen  to  the 
music  of,  a  military  band.  From  this  point  the 
Esplanade  Road  runs  north  past  the  Public  Offices, 
an   imposing   rank  of  buildings  facing  Back  Bay. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  while  European  models  have 
furnished  the  main  scheme,  the  architect  has  in  many 
instances  made  some  concessions  to  tlie  local  atmos- 
phere, with  tiie  result  of  a  happy  blending  tif  tlie 
styles  of  West  and  East. 

The  Presidential  Secretariat  has  a  Icngtii  of  nearly 
four   hundred    and  fifty  feet,  with   two   wings,   each 
Vol.  I.—'J 


130  INDIA. 

eii!:litv-onc  feet  long.  It  is  built  in  the  Venetian- 
Gothic  style,  and  the  carvings  and  interior  decorations 
are  the  work  of  native  artists. 

The  University  Library,  Clock  Tower  and  Hall 
form  a  magnificent  group  of  buildings.  The  Tower, 
and  in  some  part  the  Library,  owe  their  existence  to 
the  generosity  of  a  native,  who  built  the  one  and 
endowed  the  other  at  an  expense  of  Rx40,000. 
From  the  top  of  the  former,  which  Ls  two  hundred 
and  sixty  feet  in  height,  a  fine  view  of  the  city  and 
environments  may  be  had. 

The  Courts  of  Justice  have  their  home  in  a  splendid 
pile,  extending  five  hundred  and  sixty-two  feet  in 
length  and  reaching  an  elevation,  by  means  of  the 
tower,  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet.  The 
main  entrance  is  composed  of  a  grand  archway,  flanked 
by  octagon  towers  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high, 
surmounted  by  statues  of  Mercy  and  Justice. 

The  succession  of  public  buildings  is  continued 
northward  by  the  Post  Office  and  the  Telegraph 
Office.  Just  beyond  the  last  named,  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  Mayo  and  Esplanade  Roads,  is  the  beautiful 
marble  statue  of  Queen  Victoria  by  Noble.  It  was 
erected  at  a  cost  of  over  Rx  18,000,  by  far  the 
greater  portion  of  which  amount  was  defrayed  by 
the  late  Gaekwitr  of  Baroda.  Continuing  along  the 
Mayo  Road  a  few  hundred  yards,  one  reaches  the 
Municipal  Buildings  and  the  Victoria  Station  of  the 
Great   Indian  Peninsular  Railroad.     This,  probably 


University  and  Clock  Tower,  Bombay 


n 


BOMBAY.  131 

the  finest  structure  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  was  com- 
pleted in  1888  at  an  outlay  of  Rx300,000.  In  the 
immediate  vicinity  is  a  group  of  educational  institu- 
tions and  churches.  Near  by  is  the  Crawford  Market, 
which  perhaps  has  no  equal  in  any  country  for  size, 
convenience  and  variety  of  food  display.  The  build- 
ing, which  cost  Rxl  10,000,  consists  of  a  central  hall, 
with  a  clock  tower  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  feet 
high,  and  two  wings,  one  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
by  one  hundred  feet,  and  the  other  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  by  one  hundred  feet.  In  the  Fruit  Market 
one  may  get  grapes  from  Aurangiibad,  oranges  from 
Nagpur  and  mangoes  from  Mazagon  or  Goa ;  bananas 
of  several  varieties,  pummelos,  bread  fruit,  custard 
apples  and  other  luscious  products  of  the  East.  In 
the  Poultry  Market  are  offered  ducks,  partridges, 
quail,  snipe,  teal,  florican,  plover,  curlew  and  the 
commoner  kinds  of  fowls.  The  Fish  Market  con- 
tains many  delicious  specimens  of  the  finny  tribe  with 
which  the  Western  palate  is  unfamiliar.  The  surma 
and  the  sargutali  are  flat  fish ;  the  palla  is  a  species 
of  salmon  ;  the  bhui  machchi  when  dried  and  salted 
becomes  the  celebrated  "  Bombay  duck." 

Bombay  is  particularly  rich  in  eleemosynary  institu- 
tions maintained  for  the  benefit  of  the  natives ;  these 
include  a  number  and  variety  of  schools  and  hospitals. 
The  liberality  of  the  Parsis  is  conspicuously  in  evi- 
dence. Almost  every  municipal  work  in  recent  years 
has  been  facilitated  by  handsome  contributions  from 


132  INDIA. 

one  or  other  of  the  many  wealthy  men  of  that  scot. 
Private  enterprises  of  an  etlueationul  and  even  of  a 
religious  eharacter  arc  frequently  their  beneficiaries, 
while  their  gifts  to  the  people  in  the  form  of  foun- 
tains, statues,  gardens  and  the  like  are  numerous. 

Centuries  ago  some  of  the  followers  of  Zoroaster 
fled  from  Persia  to  escape  the  persecutions  of  the 
Muhammadans,  and  settled  in  western  India.  Their 
descendants  have  maintained  the  purity  of  their  race 
and  of  their  religion,  the  latter  end  having  doubtless 
been  served,  equally  with  the  former,  by  their  invari- 
able practice  of  marrying  only  among  themselves. 
These  people,  who  number  about  fifty  thousand  in 
Bombay,  are  the  most  influential  of  its  native  citizens. 
They  are  distinguished  for  their  integrity,  enterprise, 
philanthropy  and  Avealth.  They  are,  almost  without 
exception,  highly  educated  and  exemplary  in  their 
private  lives.  Several  of  them  have  been  knighted 
and  decorated  by  the  British  Government,  Avhich  has 
no  more  loyal  subjects. 

The  Parsis  resent  the  appellation  of  "  fire  worship- 
ers," and  with  justice.  They  are  Deists,  and  rever- 
ence the  sun  and  fire  as  symbols  of  the  one  God ;  in 
the  same  spirit  they  reverence  the  elements  of  earth 
and  water.  Hence  their  peculiar  disposition  of  the 
dead.  They  will  not  pollute  the  soil  by  interring  a 
corpse,  ^vhich  is  deemed  imclean ;  for  like  reasons  they 
refrain  from  burning  one  or  consigning  it  to  the  sea. 

The  native  quarter,  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the 


BOMBAY,  133 

European  town,  contains  many  points  of  interest. 
Its  streets  are  crooked  and  narrow,  but  extremely 
picturesque.  The  houses,  in  some  instances  very 
handsome  and  luxurious,  are  often  embellished  with 
fine  carvings,  corbels  and  gargoyles.  In  the  bazaars 
are  oifered  for  sale  a  variety  of  specimens  of  the 
famous  Bombay  black  wood  and  tortoise  shell 
carving;  inlaid  sandalwood  boxes;  brass  ware  and 
pottery ;  gold  and  silver  lace,  and  embroidery  in 
many  forms.  The  equestrian  may  find  a  feast  for  his 
eyes  in  the  Arab  horse-mart  of  the  Bhendi  Bazaar,  to 
which  the  traders  bring  their  finest  animals. 

Temples  and  mosques  are  numerous  in  the  native 
town,  but  few  of  them  are  interesting  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  archaeologist. 

The  Temple  of  Walkeshwar,  on  Malabar  Hill,  is 
perhaps  the  oldest  and  certainly  the  most  frequented 
by  Hindu  devotes.  A  peculiarly  Eastern  institution, 
probably  of  Buddhist  origin  in  its  conception,  is  the 
Pinjrapal.  This  is  a  refuge  for  sick,  aged  and  crip- 
pled beasts.  Within  the  inclosure,  which  embraces 
several  acres,  are  buffaloes,  cattle,  asses,  sheep,  goats 
and  dogs,  in  every  stage  of  decrepitude  and  disease. 

Starting  from  the  southern  end  of  Rotten  Row,  one 
may  enjoy  a  splendid  drive  of  about  three  miles 
beside  the  bay.  This  route  will  take  one  past  the 
Public  Offices,  the  University,  the  Queen's  Statue, 
the  ]\Iarine  Lines,  the  Money  Institute,  the  burning 
ghat  of  the  Hindus,  the  burial  ground  of  the  Muhara- 


134  INDIA. 

inatliins  and  the  cemetery  of  the  Europeans,  iu  close 
j)ruxiniity  to  each  other,  and  so  to  Malabar  Hill. 
This  is  the  fashionable  suburb  of  Bombay,  and  it  is 
upon  its  elevation  thai  the  principal  Europeans  and 
wealthy  Parsis  have  their  villas.  Plere,  stretched  in 
a  long  wicker  chair  upon  his  veranda,  the  merchant 
or  the  Government  official  enjoys  the  refreshing  sea 
breeze,  while  his  gaze  wanders  over  a  panoramic  view 
of  surpassing  beauty. 

The  summit  of  the  hill  is  occupied  by  the  Towers 
of  Silence  and  the  gardens  in  which  they  stand. 
There  are  five  of  these  towers  upon  Malabar  Hill. 
They  are  open  cylinders  of  gray  stone.  The  largest 
is  twenty-five  feet  high  and  ninety-two  feet  in 
diameter.  The  interior  arrangement  consists  of  three 
circular  walls,  the  innermost  inclosing  a  well.  In  the 
outer  compartment  thus  formed  are  laid  the  bodies  of 
men  ;  in  the  next  those  of  women,  and  in  the  third 
those  of  children.  Other  than  this  there  is  no  dis- 
tinction. It  is  a  tenet  of  the  Parsi  faith  that  all  must 
meet  on  a  common  footing  after  death,  and,  in  accord- 
ance ^\^th  this  belief,  rich  and  poor  are  consigned  to 
the  same  receptacle  on  equal  terms.  Within  an  hour 
of  the  time  the  naked  corpses  are  deposited  in  the 
tower  the  bones  are  picked  clean  by  the  vultures, 
which  form  a  living  coping  to  the  walls.  When  the 
bones  have  thoroughly  dried  they  are  thrown  into 
the  well,  where  they  crumble  to  dust.  The  Nasr 
Salars,  or  bearers  of  the  dead,  are  always  gloved  when 


BOMBAY.  135 

performing  the  burial  rites,  and  use  tongs  in  handling 
the  bones.  They  purify  themselves  by  washing,  and 
discard  their  clothing  after  every  visit  to  a  tower. 
Yet  their  vocation  is  considered  degrading,  and  they 
are  not  admitted  to  social  intercourse  with  other 
Parsis. 

But  for  the  presence  of  the  loathsome  vultures, 
which  infest  the  neighboring  woods,  the  surroundings 
of  the  towers  are  attractive  in  the  extreme.  The 
gardens  are  full  of  flowers  and  blossoming  shrubs. 
Tapering  cypresses,  Nature's  indices  pointing  the  way 
of  the  departed  souls,  throw  their  long  shadows  over 
the  green  sward.  Birds  of  brilliant  plumage  flit  from 
tree  to  tree,  or  fill  the  air  with  their  melodious  piping. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  the  Parsis  it  may  be 
of  interest  to  recount  a  piece  of  family  history  which 
is  distinctly  characteristic  of  this  extraordinary  people. 
In  1735  the  East  India  Company  opened  a  shij)- 
building  yard  at  Bombay.  A  Parsi  named  Lawji 
Naushirwanji  was  made  foreman  of  the  establishment, 
and  ever  since  that  time  the  superintendence  of  the 
dockyard  has  remained  in  the  family.  In  1771  Lawji 
died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandsons,  and  they 
in  turn  by  their  sons;  so  that  "the  history  of  the 
dockyard  is  that  of  the  rise  of  a  respectable,  honest 
and  hard-working  Parsi  family." 

In  addition  to  a  great  number  of  merchantmen, 
several  shi])s  for  the  British  Royal  Navy  have  been 
built  at  Bombay.     Teak  was  the  material  invariably 


]-r,  INDIA. 

used  in  the  construction  of  tlicsc  vessels.  This  hard 
wood,  which  is  plentiful  in  certain  parts  of  India,  lias 
extraordinary  lasting  qualities.  It  appears  to  defy 
even  the  ravages  of  the  white  ant,  which  will  go 
through  almost  anything  short  of  metal,  The  Lawji 
Castle,  a  merchantman  launched  from  the  ]]ombay 
yards,  and  named  after  the  sturdy  progenitor  of  this 
Parsi  line  of  hereditary  shipbuilders,  was  in  service 
continuously  for  over  seventy  years. 

Elephants,  one  of  the  twelve  islands  that  compose 
the  group  of  which  Bombay  is  the  principal,  lies  six 
miles  to  the  east  of  the  latter.  To  the  natives  it  is 
known  as  Garapur,  or  "the  town  of  excavations,"  the 
appellation  having  reference  to  the  famous  cave 
temples.  By  the  English  it  w^as  named  Elephantd, 
on  account  of  a  large  image  of  an  elephant,  hewn  from 
rock,  which  stood  upon  the  hill  at  the  southern  end 
of  the  island  until  it  was  removed  about  forty  years 
ago  to  Bombay.  The  island  is  covered  with  thick 
vegetation,  and  is  practically  uninhabited.  A  stone 
pier  and  a  flight  of  steps  lead  to  the  entrance  of 
the  cave,  which  is  marked  by  two  massive  columns 
supporting  a  projecting  table  of  rock.  The  main 
temple  is  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  square, 
and  its  roof  is  supported  by  twenty  pillars  and 
sixteen  pilasters,  about  sixteen  feet  in  height.  Two 
minor  excavations  stand  back,  and  on  each  side,  of 
the  temple.  The  entire  rock  is  covered  with  bas- 
reliefs  referring  to  the  Hindu  mythology,  but  chiefly 


Caves  of  Elephanta 


ELEPHANTA.  137 

to  Siva.  The  most  striking  of  these  is  the  Trimurti,  a 
colossal  three-headed  figure  representing  the  god  in 
his  triple  capacity  of  Creator,  Destroyer  and  Sus- 
tained Another  strilviug  carving  is  the  Ard-dhaua- 
risliwar,  which  depicts  the  deity  in  the  dual  aspect 
of  man  and  woman,  one  half  of  the  figure  displaying 
the  male  and  the  otlier  the  female  form.  The  incon- 
gruity of  the  combination  is  lost  sight  of  in  the 
majestic  proportions  of  the  figure  and  the  beauty  of  tlie 
execution.  Other  sculptures  portray  the  marriage  of 
Siva  and  Parvati ;  the  birth  of  Ganesli ;  the  elephant- 
headed  god  of  Wisdom;  the  decapitation  of  Daksh 
by  Siva ;  Eavana  attempting  to  remove  Kailas ;  the 
mountain  abode  of  Siva ;  Siva  in  the  guise  of  a  yogi ; 
and  Siva  engaged  in  a  frantic  dance,  attended  by  a 
retinue  of  demons.  The  age  of  this  temple  is  uncer- 
tain, but  it  is  probably  not  less  than  one  thousand 
years  old.  A  process  of  disintegration  has  been  going 
on  rapidly  during  the  past  half  century. 

There  are  in  tlie  Bombay  Presidency  about  forty 
groups  of  these  rock  temples,  the  majority  of  them 
of  Buddhist  origin.  The  most  accessible,  after  Ele- 
phanta,  are  the  caves  of  Kanhari,  or  Kennery,  situated 
in  the  middle  of  the  island  of  Salsette,  and  reached 
by  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular  Railway,  via  Thanna, 
from  whicli  point  tlio  final  six  miles  are  covered  in  a 
bullock  gliari.  Thanna  itself  is  a  place  of  no  small 
interest.  Marco  Polo  described  it  in  1298,  as  "a 
great  kingdom,"  having  much  trade,  and  the  resort 


138  INDIA. 

of  uiany  merchants  aucl  sea  traders.  It  became  one 
of  the  early  settlements  of  the  Portuguese,  but  was 
later  captured  by  the  Maiathas,  by  Avhom  it  was 
ceded  to  the  English  in  1775.  It  is,  however,  in 
connection  with  the  romantic  episode  of  the  escape  of 
Trimbukji  Dainglia  that  Thamia  is  best  remembered. 
This  Maratha  chieftain,  mIio  had  murd(;red  Gunj- 
adhur  Shastri,  the  Minister  of  the  Gaekwiir  of  Baroda, 
was  in  1815  confined  by  the  British  in  the  fortress  of 
Thanna.  A  band  of  fifty-four  ^Maratha  horsemen 
devoted  themselves  to  the  purpose  of  effecting  the 
escape  of  Trimbukji,  and  accomplished  their  object 
in  a  characteristic  manner.  A  Maratha  horse-boy  in 
the  service  of  one  of  the  English  officers  was  accus- 
tomed to  exercise  his  master's  charger  every  day  nnder 
the  prisoner's  window.  A\niile  passing  to  and  fro  he 
nonchalantly  sang  a  Martltha  ballad,  which,  while  it 
w^as  not  understood  by  the  guard,  had  the  ntmost 
significance  for  the  chieftain.  The  horse-boy's  song 
has  thus  been  rendered  by  Bishop  Heber : 

"  Behind  the  bush  the  horsemen  hide, 
The  horse  beneath  the  tree ; 
Where  shall  I  find  the  knight  will  ride 
The  jungle  paths  with  me  ? 

"There  are  five-and-fifty  coursers  there, 
And  four-and-fifty  men; 
When  the  fifty-fifth  shall  mount  his  steed 
Tlie  Deccan  thrives  again." 

Seizing  a  favorable  opportunity  Trimbukji    scaled 


KANHAEI-KARLI.  139 

the  wall  of  the  fort,  leaped  upon  the  officer's  horse, 
and  dashed  off  to  the  rendezvous,  whence  he  and  his 
followers  made  their  way  safely  to  the  jungly  hills 
of  Kandeish. 

The  caves  of  Kanhari,  which  number  upwards  of  a 
hundred,  are  scattered  over  a  hill  lying  in  the  midst 
of  dense  forest.  In  the  vihara  of  the  principal  temple 
are  two  figures  of  Buddha,  twenty-three  feet  in  height. 
At  tlie  threshold  of  the  Great  Chaitya  Cave  are  three 
dagobas,  solid  cupola-like  masses  of  rock.  One  of 
the  caves  of  Kanhari  contained,  in  ancient  times,  a 
tooth  of  Buddha,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
transported  to  Ceylon,  where  it  is  cherished  as  per- 
haps the  chief  Buddhist  relic  in  existence.  Flights 
of  steps  and  narrow,  winding  pathways  connect  the 
various  caves  and  lead  to  the  top  of  the  hill,  an  almost 
bare  knob  of  rock,  from  which  a  splendid  view  may 
be  obtained.  The  caves  of  Kanhari  date  from  the 
second  to  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  of 
our  era.  Fergusson  is  of  the  opinion  that  these  exca- 
vations are  the  work  of  a  colony  of  Buddhists,  "  who 
may  have  taken  refuge  here  after  being  expelled  from 
the  continent,  and  Avho  tried  to  reproduce  the  lost 
Karli  in  their  insular  retreat." 

Although  there  are  resemblances  of  design  and 
arrangement,  the  caves  of  Kanhari  are  not  by  any 
means  as  fine  as  those  of  Karli,  nor  in  as  goo<l  a  state 
of  preservation. 

The  village  of  Karli   is   upon    the  Great    Indian 


140  INDIA. 

IVniiKsular  Railway,  about  eighty  miles  from  Bombay, 
liefore  ivaeliing  this  poiut  the  traiu  begins  the  ascent 
of  the  Bohr  Ghat,  at  a  gradient  of  one  in  forty-two. 
The  scenery  is  indescribably  lovely.  After  the  rains, 
the  valleys  and  the  mountain  sides  are  covered  with  a 
mass  of  variegated  foliage,  interspersed  with  rivulets 
and  waterfalls.  At  Kampoli  one  looks  down  upon 
the  Temple  of  ^Nlahadeo,  with  its  tank  and  banyan 
tree,  from  an  elevation  of  a  thousand  feet.  Here  the 
track  runs  along  the  edge  of  a  perpendicular  precipice, 
and  seems  to  bridge  the  scene  below.  Before  the 
spectator  stretches  the  valley  of  the  Konkan,  the 
scene  of  the  earliest  depredations  of  the  Burgees, 
those  dashing  freebooters  whom  the  genius  of  Sivaji 
formed  into  the  powerful  Marath4  nation.  These 
ruo-ged  mountains  formed  the  cradle  of  that  romantic 
race.  The  rocky  defiles  and  inaccessible  passes  of 
the  ghats,  among  which  they  built  their  eyrie-like 
fortresses,  afforded  them  a  sure  retreat  in  the  face  of 
overwhelming  numbers.  At  Lonauli  this  extraordinary 
section  of  railway,  which  affords  one  of  the  most 
interesting  journeys  in  all  Indian  travel,  reaches  an 
elevation  of  over  two  thousand  feet.  The  passage  of 
the  Bhor  Ghdt  involved  some  of  the  most  difficult 
and  unique  feats  in  the  history  of  engineering, 
and  entailed  the  expenditure  of  a  sum  approxi- 
mating Rx600,000,  or  more  than  Rx40,000  a  mile. 
The  caves  of  Karli  are  about  six  miles  from  the 
village  of  that  name,  and   an   equal  distance   from 


KARLT.  141 

Lonaiili,  which  is  on  some  accounts  the  better  starting 
point. 

Fergusson  describes  the  great  Karli  rock  temple  as 
"  without  exception  the  largest  and  finest  chaitya  cave 
in  India.  .  .  .  The  building  resembles  an  early  Chris- 
tian church  in  its  arrangements,  while  all  the  dimen- 
sions are  similar  to  those  of  the  choir  of  Norwich 
Cathedral.  The  nave  is  separated  from  the  side  aisles 
by  fifteen  columns,  with  octagonal  shafts  on  each  side. 
.  .  ,  On  the  abacus,  which  crowns  the  capital  of  each 
of  these,  are  two  kneeling  elephants,  and  on  each 
elephant  are  two  seated  figures.  .  .  .  Behind  the  altar 
are  seven  plain  octagonal  piers,  without  sculpture, 
making  thus  thirty-seven  pillars  altogether,  exclusive 
of  the  Lion-pillar  in  front  (of  the  cave),  which  is 
sixteen-sided,  and  is  crowned  with  four  lions,  with 
their  hinder  parts  joined.  .  .  .  There  are  no  traces  of 
painting  in  this  cave,  though  the  inner  wall  has  been 
plastered,  and  may  have  been  painted ;  but  the  cave 
is  inhabited,  and  the  continued  smoke  of  cooking-fires 
has  so  blackened  its  walls  that  it  is  impossible  to 
decide  the  question.  Its  inhabitants  are  Sivitcs,  and 
the  cave  is  considered  a  temple  dedicated  to  Siva,  the 
dagoba  performing  the  j)art  of  a  gigantic  lingam, 
which  it  resembles  a  good  deal.  The  outer  porch  is 
fifty-two  feet  wide  and  fifteen  feet  deep.  Here  origin- 
ally the  fronts  of  three  elephants  in  each  end  wall 
supported  a  frieze,  ornamented,  with  the  rail ;  but  at 
both  ends  this  second  rail  has  been  cut  away  to  intro- 


142  INDIA. 

(hioo  figures.  Above  was  a  quadrantal  moulding,  and 
tlioM  a  rail,  with  small  facades  of  temples  and  pairs 
ot"  figures." 

Fergusson  is  of  the  opinion^  based  on  sound  deduc- 
tions, that  the  carved  woodwork,  in  which  teak  has 
been  employed,  is  that  originally  put  up  ;  in  which 
case  it  must  be  two  thousand  years  old,  for  reliable 
authorities  are  united  in  placing  the  date  of  the  Karli 
chaitya  at  the  first  or  second  century  before  Christ. 

In  the  "Rock-cut  Temples  of  India"  the  same 
writer  gives  a  general  description  of  these  chaitya 
caves.  The  disposition  of  the  component  parts  of  the 
interior  is  exactly  like  those  of  the  choir  of  a  Gothic 
polygonal  apse  cathedral.  The  front  is  invariably 
traversed  by  a  screen,  surmounted  by  a  gallery  corre- 
sponding to  the  rood  loft.  The  screen  has  three 
apertures  letting  upon  the  nave  and  side  aisles.  That 
portion  of  the  front  of  the  cave  which  is  above  the 
screen  is  open  to  the  air,  forming  a  window  of  horse- 
shoe shape,  through  which  the  only  light  admitted  to 
the  interior  streams  upon  the  dagoba  with  striking 
effect.  That  structure  occui^ies  the  place  which 
would  be  filled  by  the  altar  in  a  Christian  edifice. 
The  space  beyond  is  obscured  or  hid  in  gloom,  and 
if  Fergusson's  'surmise  that  the  worshiper  was  never 
admitted  beyond  the  colonnade  at  the  further  end  is 
correct,  the  effect  upon  him  must  have  been  extremely 
impressive,  because  he  could,  in  that  case,  neither  see 
nor  know  whence  the  light  came. 


KARLI.  143 

There  are  a  number  of  small  viharas,  or  monasteries, 
at  Karli,  which  are  not,  however,  as  good  specimens  of 
that  class  of  ancient  architecture  as  may  be  seen  else- 
where. In  the  neighborhood  of  Karli  are  the  Maratha 
hill  fortresses  of  Lohogurh  and  Visapur,  which  are 
associated  with  several  interesting  events  in  Indian 
history. 

Following  the  line  of  rail  which  emerges  upon  the 
Deccan,  or  great  plateau  of  Central  India,  you  are 
brought,  after  a  journey  of  thirty-five  miles  from 
Louauli,  to  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Marathsis. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE    DECCAX,    POONA,  SINGURH,   RAIGURn,  PERTAB- 
GURH,    BIJAPUR. 

At  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Mughal  power  in  the  Deccan  had  already  begun  to 
find  the  Marathas  troublesome  subjects.  The  most 
unruly  of  all  the  clans  was  that  of  Bhonsla.  Failing 
to  secure  their  good  behavior  by  the  argument  of  the 
sword,  the  Sultan  of  Bijiipur  sought  to  pacify  them 
by  making  over  certain  pergunnahs  and  forts  in 
jagheer,  which  was  a  service  tenure  somewhat  similar 
to  that  under  which  the  feudal  barons  of  England 
held  their  lands.  Thus  Malloji  Bhonsla,  the  grand- 
father of  Sivaji,  came  into  possession  of  Poona.  The 
present  capital  of  the  Deccan,  at  that  time  little  more 
than  a  village,  was  a  place  of  some  imjx)rtance  to  the 
Hindus,  on  account  of  the  sacred  hill  of  Par  vat  i, 
which  stood  within  its  limits.  In  1637  Shahji 
Bhonsla  built  a  palace  at  Poona  for  his  wnfe  and 
young  son,  and  it  was  there  that  Sivaji  passed  his 
early  life.  Twenty-five  years  later,  when  Sivaji,  the 
"  mountain  rat,"  as  Aurangzeb  called  him,  was  at  the 
height  of  his  romantic  career,  the  Mughal  Emperor 

144 


THE  DECCAN.  145 

sent  a  punitive  force  against  him  under  Shaisteli 
Khan.  Upon  the  approach  of  the  Mughal  general, 
Sivaji,  who  was  too  clever  a  tactician  to  Avaste  his 
strength  in  the  defence  of  an  unfortified  town,  leis- 
urely withdrew  to  the  fortress  of  Singurh,  a  few  miles 
distant.  The  imperial  army  occupied  Poona,  and 
Shaisteh  Khan  established  his  quarters  in  the  palace 
of  Sivaji,  the  same  which  had  been  built  for  his 
mother  during  his  boyhood.  Tlie  general  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  oust  the  Maratha  from  his 
retreat  at  Singurh,  and  Sivaji  determined  to  return 
the  visit.  With  twenty-five  picked  Mawalis  he  con- 
trived to  enter  tlie  town,  and,  benefiting  by  his  famil- 
iarity with  the  palace  and  the  precincts,  passed  the 
guards  and  fell  upon  the  household  before  an  alarm 
could  be  given.  In  the  affair  that  ensued,  Shaisteh 
Khan  was  fortunate  to  escape  with  the  loss  of  a 
finger.  His  son  was  slain,  as  well  as  a  number  of  his 
personal  retainers.  Sivaji  and  his  men  regained  the 
fort  in  safety. 

Aurangzeb  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in 
the  Deccan,  and  contrived  by  his  presence  with  a 
large  army  to  hold  in  check  the  Marathiis,  who 
no  longer  enjoyed  the  leadership  of  the  Bhonsla 
chieftain.  The  young  nation  was  merely  scotched, 
however,  and  immediatc^ly  after  the  death,  in  1707, 
of  Aurangzeb,  they  again  revolted  against  the  Mughal 
rule.  In  1748  Bahlji  Rtio,  the  third  of  the  Bnlhman 
Peshwas,  made  Poona  the  ca})ital  of  the  Maratha 
Vol.  I.-IO 


146  INDIA. 

conibderaey.  By  tliis  time  Poona  had  come  to  be  a 
city  of  considerable  size  and  military  streugth,  and 
the  Maratlia  nation  was  near  the  zenith  of  its  power. 
The  house  of  Bhonsla  was  on  the  wane,  while  the 
Poshwds,  the  nominal  hereditary  ministers  of  the 
successors  of  Sivaji,  were  becoming  independent  and 
supreme.  At  the  same  time  the  founders  of  the 
great  houses  of  Sindhia  and  Holkar — the  one  a  com- 
mon trooper  and  the  other  a  shepherd — were  forging 
their  ways  into  prominence  by  their  military  prowess. 
The  next  half  century  saw  continuous  conflicts  be- 
tween these  rival  jSIarathd  powers,  from  one  to 
another  of  whom  the  capital  passed  with  the  fluctua- 
tions of  war.  Although  Delhi  no  longer  exercised 
any  control  over  Mardshtra,  that  country  was  not 
by  any  means  free  of  the  old  enemy,  for  on  its  borders 
lay  the  Muhammadan  kingdom  of  the  Nizdm,  with 
whom  the  Mardthas  were  incessantly  engaged  in 
warfare. 

Those  were  stirring  times  in  Marashtra.  Sindhia, 
Holkar,  Tattia  and  Ghatgai  plied  the  sword  with  un- 
tiring vigor,  while  the  astute  Nana  Farnavis  and 
the  wily  Bdji  Rdo  played  the  game  with  the  more 
effective  weapons  of  finesse. 

"It  is  impossible  in  a  mere  historical  sketch  of 
Poona  as  this  is  to  dwell  in  detail  on  the  stirring 
events,  the  multitudinous  intrigues  and  counter-in- 
trigues, the  incessant  treacheries,  by  which  each  party 
— Brdhman  and   Mardthd,  Peshwa  and  Prime  Miu- 


POONA.  147 

ister,  Sindhia  and  Holkar — pursued  their  ends  be- 
tween 1797  and  1817,  when  the  power  of  each  and 
all  was  destined  to  be  shattered  by  the  steadfast  good 
faith  and  indomitable  resolution  of  the  British.  It 
is  as  if  one  were  gazing  into  a  kaleidoscope  :  Anon 
the  terra  cotta  hue  of  the  Brahman  suiFuses  the  vision  ; 
anon  it  is  blurred  out  by  the  saffron  shade  of  the 
true  Mariltha ;  that  again  is  obliterated  by  the  rose- 
pink  of  Central  India  while  Holkar  dominates;  this 
deepens  into  the  lurid  red  of  Sindhia's  times,  which  is 
again  washed  out  in  rose-color ;  that  gives  place  again 
to  the  Brahman  brick-dust  shade,  clouded  over  and 
over  again  by  dark  shadows  of  deceit  and  treachery ; 
the  while,  as  the  hand  turns,  in  each  picture  appears 
fragments  of  the  Mughal  green,  until  at  last  all 
tints  blend  in  bewildering  confusion,  and  the  'red, 
white  and  blue'  of  the  English  nation  effacing  them 
all,  remains  permanently  reflected  by  the  prismatic 
glasses." 

The  city  of  the  Peshwas  was  the  fitting  scene  of  the 
closing  acts  of  the  absorbing  drama. 

The  morning  of  the  25th  of  October,  1802,  saw 
the  two  great  armies  of  Holkar  and  Sindhia  confront- 
ing each  other  in  battle  array  upon  the  plain  outside 
of  Poona.  Off  their  flanks  stood  the  neutral  British 
troops,  inactive  spectators  of  the  fight.  Tiie  nu'serable 
coward,  Baji  Jlao,  lay  within  his  walls  in  the  rear  of 
Sindiiia,  like  a  jackal  slinking  in  the  wake  of  a  lion, 
waiting  to  join  in  tlie  slaughter  and  pIuikUt  when  liis 


148  INDIA. 

:illy  Imd  defeated  Plolkiir,  as  he  confidently  expected 
that  he  would. 

Holkar's  force  consisted  of  about  twenty  thousand 
infantry,  twenty-five  thousand  cavalry  and  one  hun- 
dred guns.  Sindhia  was  stronger  than  his  opponent 
in  each  arm.  He  had  four  veteran  battalions  of 
De  Boigne,  officered  by  Frenchmen,  and  the  Peshwa's 
levies  formed  a  reserve  in  the  city.  On  both  sides 
English  officers  held  important  commands. 

The  battle  opened  with  an  artillery  duel  of  two 
hours'  duration.  Then  Holkar  sent  his  Pathan 
cavalry  across  the  field  in  a  furious  charge  against  the 
brigade  of  the  Vinchur  chief,  which  was  scattered 
like  chaff.  Immediately  afterwards  his  Maratha 
horse  met  with  a  severe  repulse  on  the  other  flank. 
Sindhia's  commander  followed  up  his  success  with  a 
counter  attack  so  vigorous  and  successful  that  Holkar's 
troops  gave  way  all  along  the  line,  and  his  defeat 
seemed  assured.  At  this  critical  juncture  Holkar 
spurred  his  horse  to  the  front  of  his  wavering 
followers,  crying,  "  Now  or  never  follow  Jaswant 
Riio  !"  Back  turned  the  tide,  and  on  Avent  Holkar, 
driving  the  broken  line  of  Sindhia's  horsemen  before 
him.  Then  wheeling  suddenly,  he  falls  upon  the 
flank  of  the  enemy's  picked  infantry — the  old  battal- 
ions of  De  Boigne  —  and,  killing  or  capturing 
their  European  officers,  he  utterly  routs  them. 
These  dashing  movements  decided  the  day.  Sind- 
hia's  army  broke   in    disorderly  flight,   and   all   its 


POONA.  149 

guns  and  impedimenta  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
victor. 

Meanwhile  the  Peshwa  had  fled  at  the  first  intima- 
tion of  the  unlooked-for  turn  of  events.  He  took 
refuge  in  the  fort  of  Singurh,  whence,  after  his  usual 
pusillanimous  practice,  he  sent  a  whining  appeal  for 
protection  to  the  British  authorities. 

Closely  pursued  by  Holkar's  troops,  he  fled  like  a 
frightened  fox  from  point  to  point,  until  at  length  he 
gained  the  seaboard  and  took  ship  to  Bassein. 

A  few  months  later  the  possessions  of  Baji  Rao 
were  restored  to  him  by  the  Treaty  of  Bassein,  the 
terms  of  which  this  most  despicable  figure  in  Hindu 
history  began  to  secretly  violate  before  the  signatures 
to  the  document  were  dry.  He  endeavored  to  unite 
Sindhia,  Holkar  and  Bhonsla  in  a  conspirac}^  against 
the  British,  who  had  befriended  him  when  he  Avas 
helpless  and  hopeless ;  but  Baji  had  ere  this  estab- 
lished a  wide  reputation  for  breaking  faith  with  friend 
and  foe  alike,  and  none  could  trust  him,  though  he 
took  an  oath  upon  the  tail  of  a  cow,  than  which  no  form 
of  adjuration  could  be  more  binding  upon  a  Brahman. 
He  covertly  abetted  Ti»)u  Sahib  in  his  war  with 
the  English,  to  whom  at  the  same  time  he  proclaimed 
his  friendship  and  gratitude  in  the  most  abject  terms. 
These  sinister  machinations  came,  after  awhile,  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  British  authorities,  and  matters 
were  brought  to  a  crisis  by  the  affair  of  Trimbukji 
Dainglia,    who,   wliile   in    open    revolt   against    tiie 


150  INDIA. 

British,  remained  in  the  pay  of  his  old  master,  B:1ji ;  by 
the  attempt  of"  the  latter  to  corrupt  the  British  troops 
at  Poena ;  and  by  his  plot  to  murder  the  Resident. 

Towards  the  close  of  1817  Baji  Rao,  who  had  by 
this  time  violated  every  article  of  the  Treaty  of 
Bassein,  had  grown  recklessly  open  in  his  preparations 
for  hostilities  against  the  British,  and  Mr.  Mountstuart 
Elphinstone,  the  Resident,  on  the  1st  of  November 
removed  the  troops  from  the  cantonment  to  the  more 
favorable  position  at  the  village  of  Kirki,  about  three 
miles  distant  from  the  city.  Kirki  is  now  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Bombay  artillery,  and  contains 
large  ammunition  and  powder  factories,  but  in 
1817  it  was  merely  a  collection  of  huts.  Here, 
upon  the  site  of  the  memorable  conflict  between 
Holkar  and  Sindhia,  was  fought  the  battle  which 
decided  the  fate  of  the  last  and  worst  of  the 
Peshwas. 

On  the  5th  of  November  Baji  prepared  to  attack 
the  British  position,  but  even  on  the  verge  of  unmis- 
takable hostilities  he  could  not  refrain  from  useless 
lying.  A  message  was  sent  to  Mr.  Elphinstone,  beg- 
ging him  not  to  be  alarmed  by  the  movement  of  troops, 
which  were  leaving  the  city  for  no  other  purpose  than 
to  form  a  guard  of  honor  for  the  Peshwa,  who  was 
about  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  Parvati, 
on  the  neighboring  hill.  There  was  this  much  truth 
in  the  statement — that  the  chicken-hearted  Peshwa 
repaired  to,  the  summit  before  the  engagement  com- 


POONA.  151 

menced,  in  order  that  he  miglit  be  assured  of  a  fair 
start  in  the  case  of  defeat  and  pursuit. 

The  British  force  of  twenty-eight  hundred,  of  which 
no  more  than  eight  hundred  were  Europeans,  were 
assailed  by  twenty-three  thousand  horse  and  ten  thou- 
sand foot,  supported  by  fourteen  guns. 

Gokla,  who  comniandcd  the  Maratha  army,  com- 
menced the  attack  by  a  cavalry  movement  upon  each 
flank,  supported  by  guns  and  a  strong  camel  rocket- 
corps.  The  little  body  of  British  troops  was  soon 
almost  surrounded  by  horsemen,  and  when  a  picked 
body,  with  the  Maratha  standard  to  the  front, 
charged  down  upon  them,  it  looked  as  though  they 
must  be  overwhelmed.  Unknown  to  the  Marathas, 
or  to  the  defenders  for  that  matter,  a  deep  morass  lay 
along  the  front  of  the  advancing  cavalry,  into  which 
they  rode  at  full  speed.  The  British  infantry  had 
reserved  their  fire,  and  in  the  confusion  that  ensued 
in  the  Maratha  ranks  they  poured  forth  volley  after 
volley  with  deadly  effect.  This  setback  to  the  flower 
of  their  army  completely  disconcerted  the  enemy,  and 
while  they  were  still  aghast  at  the  catastrophe,  the 
British  commander,  seizing  the  psychological  moment 
which  occurs  in  every  battle,  ordered  a  general 
advance  of  the  troops,  which  the  Peshwd  had  that 
morning  assured  his  soldiers  would  fly  before  them 
like  scuttling  hares.  Declining  to  face  the  attack, 
the  Maratha  army  retreated  from  the  field,  u])on 
which  lay  five  hundred  of  their  number.     That  they 


ir,2  TXDTA. 

Avcrc  able  to  carry  off'  their  guns  was  due  to  the 
paucity  of  cavahy  on  the  side  of  the  British. 

With  a  considerable  army  at  his  back,  Baji  Rao 
M'as  once  more  a  fugitive,  dodging  the  three  or  four 
bodies  of  British  troops  out  in  pursuit  of  him.  On 
the  first  day  of  1818  he  fell  in  with  a  small  force  of 
five  hundred  infantry  and  three  hundred  irregular 
cavalry,  with  two  guns,  under  command  of  Ca])tain 
Staunton,  of  the  Bombay  army.  The  latter  took 
post  in  the  slightly  fortified  village  of  Korygaum, 
where  they  were  attacked  by  the  Peshwa's  army  of 
thirty  thousand,  horse  and  foot,  commanded  by  the 
cruel  but  intrepid  Trimbukji  Dainglia.  Without 
food  and  but  scantily  supplied  with  water,  the  handful 
of  defenders  held  their  own  against  incessant  attacks, 
which  lasted  through  all  that  day  and  the  following 
night.  Time  and  again  tlie  enemy  penetrated  to  their 
very  midst,  and  were  driven  oif,  after  desperate  hand- 
to-hand  struggles.  On  the  morning  of  the  2d 
Baji  Rao,  having  no  further  stomach  for  the  fight,  in 
which  he  had  lost  five  hundred  men,  withdrew.  Cap- 
tain Staunton's  casualties  embraced  more  than  one- 
third  of  his  entire  force  and  two-thirds  of  his  English 
officers. 

Run  to  earth  at  last,  the  wily  Peshwa  adopted  his 
old,  cringing  tactics,  betrayed  Trimbukji  and  others, 
who  had  stood  by  him  to  the  last,  and  professed  the 
most  sincere  repentance.  The  old  rascal's  marvelous 
good  luck  never  deserted  him.      Not   only   was  his 


Tomb  of  Jahanara  Begfam 


POONA.  153 

worthless  life  spared,  but  the  British  GoverDinent, 
with  criminal  generosity,  allowed  him  to  pass  the 
remainder  of  it  in  pompous  ease  on  a  pension  of 
800,000  rupees  a  year. 

Crawford  thus  sums  up  the  character  of  the  last 
Peshwii :  "  Baji  Riio  had  not  one  redeeming-  point  in 
his  character;  he  had  no  natural  instincts  of  family 
affection  ;  he  had  no  bowels  of  mercy  ;  he  had  no 
religious  feeling,  though  ho  was  intensely  super- 
stitious. He  never  had  a  friend  or  ally  but  at  some 
time  or  other  he  betrayed  or  sacrificed  him  ;  he  did 
not  know  what  gratitude  meant.  He  never  made  a 
promise  or  swore  an  oath  that  he  did  not  break  it ;  he 
never  entered  into  a  treaty  or  an  agreement  that  he 
did  not,  while  he  signed,  think  how  he  might  evade  it. 
He  was  conceited  as  a  peacock,  but  feeble  at  a  crisis 
as  a  worm ;  he  roared  like  a  lion,  but  he  ran  away 
like  a  hare.  He  never  told  the  truth,  even  by  acci- 
dent, or  to  himself;  he  trusted  no  one,  and,  in  the 
worst  sense,  never  let  his  left  hand  know  what  his 
right  hand  was  doing.  Rapacious  and  miserly,  as 
Harpagon,  he  was  yet  lavish  and  reckless  in  his  licen- 
tiousness, and  even  more  depraved  than  Casanova. 
All  the  worst  attributes  of  Ahab,  Jezebel,  Ananias 
and  Judas  Iscariot  were  combined  in  him.  In  very 
truth,  he  was  an  incarnation  of  evil  such  as  is  difficult 
to  be  found  in  the  liistory  of  mankind." 

(Who  shall  say  iiow  much  of  tlie  tigerish  cruelty 
of  the  infamous  Nilna  Sahib  was  imiate,  and  how  nuich 


154  INDIA. 

ao(i[iiired  by  contact  with  his  brutal  father  by  adop- 
tion ?) 

The  city  of  Poona  lies  upon  the  right  bank  of  the 
]\Iutha,  just  below  the  point  of  its  junction  with  the 
Mula.     It  is  surrounded  by  typical  Deccan  country, 
flat,  but  relieved  here  and  there  by  slight  elevations, 
bare,  but  readily  yielding  crops  to  irrigation.     The 
pf)pulation  of  over  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand 
consists   mainly  of  Hindus,  with  an  unusually  large 
proportion  of  Bruhmans,  who  keep  alive  and  foster  the 
old  spirit  of  the  place.     During  four  hundred  years 
Poona  has  been  a  centre  of  intrigue  and  disaflFection, 
and   so  it  is  to-day.     The    high-caste  Hindus,   who 
engage  in  futile  and  senseless  conspiracies  against  the 
ruling  power,  are  more  often  than  not  Brdhmans  who 
have  been  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  British,  and 
not  infrequently   hold  lucrative  positions    under   the 
Government.     During  the  Mutiny,  Poona  became  a 
veritable    hotbed   of    sedition.      However,   there    is 
nothing    to    be    feared    from    this  element,  which  is 
made  up  of  soft  material,  unlike  the  Manitha  men 
of  action,  who  were  the  most  troublesome  subjects  of 
the    Mughals,  and  the    most   formidable  foes  of  the 
British,     Just  as  Sivaji  was  a  type  of  the  latter,  so 
was  Baji   Rd,o  of   the  former.     They  have   reached 
their    limit  of  capacity  when    they  incite    a   riot   or 
instigate  arson  or  murder. 

It  has  been  suggested,  among  other  hypotheses,  that 
Nana  Sahib,  after  he  became  a  proscribed  outlaw,  took 


POONA.  155 

refuge  in  Poona,  Avbere  doubtless  some  of  his  adoptive 
father's  adherents  would  have  been  able  and  willius" 
to  afford  him  an  asylum. 

The  native  press,  which  is  in  general  loyal  and 
creditable  from  the  literary  point  of  view,  is  repre- 
sented here  by  two  or  three  seditious  blackmailing 
journals,  which  might  be  suppressed  with  advantage 
to  the  community  and  the  country  at  large. 

The  city  proper  is  divided  into  seven  quarters, 
named  after  the  seven  days  of  the  week.  It  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  Bombay  army,  and  the  residence 
of  the  Governor  of  the  Presidency  during  a  portion 
of  the  year. 

Poona,  like  all  but  a  few  of  the  largest  cities  in 
India,  is  a  native  town  ;  few  Europeans  reside  within 
its  limits,  the  majority  of  them  being  attached  to  the 
military  establishments  in  the  cantonments.  The 
wealthy  Parsis  and  Jews  generally  have  their  resi- 
dences in  the  suburbs,  but  the  well-to-do  Hindu 
prefers  to  live  in  the  midst  of  his  own  people,  and  not 
infrequently  inhabits  a  fine  house  surrounded  by  the 
humblest  dwellings. 

Poona  is  rather  dirtier  and  less  attractive  than  the 
ordinary  run  of  native  cities,  but  it  is  interesting  on 
account  of  the  numerous  types  of  Western  natives  to 
be  seen  upon  its  streets.  The  Chitpawan  will  attract 
attention  anywhere  by  the  exceeding  fairness  of  his 
skin,  his  blue  eyes  and  clean-cut  features,  by  the 
dignity  of  his  bearing,  and  by  his  look  of  intellect  and 


156  INDIA. 

brooding.  He  is  a  Brahman,  and  oonios  of  a  caste 
^vhioh  has  produced  more  men  of  note  than  any  other. 
Baji  Rao  and  his  adopted  son,  Nana  Sahib,  wore 
Konkani  Cliitpawans. 

Another  striking  figure  is  the  Mussulman  of  the 
Konkau.  He  is  one  of  the  tallest  forms  in  the  crowd. 
His  handsome  aquiline  features  and  grave  demeanor 
betoken  a  dignity  of  character  which  is  seldom  lack- 
ing. A  peculiarity  of  this  type  is  that,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Muhammadan  costume,  he  wears  a  Brahman 
turban  and  shawl.  In  marked  contrast  to  the  last  is 
the  rather  undersized,  but  well-built  and  very  power- 
ful, Ma  wall,  the  "navvy  "  of  the  Deccan. 

Now  and  again  one  sees  a  Madras!  merchant,  mild 
of  as})ect  and  slow  of  tread.  The  Parsis  are  not 
numerous,  but  here,  as  elsewhere,  they  are  the  most 
prominent  and  praiseworthy  citizens.  The  Portuguese 
half-caste  is  a  familiar  character,  dressed  in  slovenly 
European  habiliments.  He  is  lazy,  musical  and 
addicted  to  drink.  Anon  the  despised  Mhar  slinks 
along.  Once  he  owned  this  country ;  now  he  is 
permitted  to  wrest  a  scanty  living  from  the  worst 
land  in  the  village,  or  to  keep  body  and  soul 
together  by  scavenging  in  the  city.  These,  with  a 
hundred  other  castes,  following  a  hundred  different 
occupations,  make  up  the  population  of  the  capital  of 
the  Deccan. 

In  the  Shanwar,  or  Saturday,  section  stand  the 
massive  walls  of  the  Juuawada,  covering  an  area  of 


POONA.  157 

about  one  hundred  and  eighty  square  yards.  The 
palace  was  built  by  the  grandfather  of  Baji  Rao.  It 
was  here  that  Damdji  Gaekwar  was  held  a  prisoner 
by  the  arch-plotter  Balaji,  and  here  also  that  Balaji's 
son  was  later  incarcerated  by  his  uncle.  It  was  from 
a  balcony  of  the  palace  that  Baji  looked  on  with 
devilish  glee  while  the  brother  of  Holkar,  tied  to  the 
foot  of  an  elephant,  was  dragged  shrieking  through 
the  streets,  to  die  a  death  of  lingering  agony.  It  was 
within  these  walls  that  Baji  sat  in  sensual  ease  while 
Sindhia,  at  his  invitation,  collected  a  debt  of  two 
millions  of  rupees  by  plundering  the  city.  Here  one 
young  Peshwa,  after  a  brief  but  stormy  life,  com- 
mitted suicide,  and  here  another — a  mere  boy — was 
murdered. 

Near  by  is  the  spot  where  condemned  criminals 
were  trampled  to  death  by  elephants,  a  mode  of 
execution  which  has  been  practiced  in  other  parts  of 
India. 

Old  Maratha  palaces  are  to  be  found  elsewhere  in 
the  city.  The  house  which  is  pointed  out  as  the  resi- 
dence of  the  famous  Nitna  Farnavis  is  particularly 
interesting.  One  can  imagine  its  gloomy  and  intricate 
interior  to  have  been  the  scene  of  dark  and  tortuous 
plots ;  but  for  that  matter  intrigue  is  rife  in  every 
Hindu  habitation,  from  the  palace  of  the  raja  to  the 
hut  of  the  grass-cutter.  It  is  just  possible  that  if  this 
house  were  torn  down  it  might  reveal  tlic  secret  of  the 
never-discovered  hoards  of  the  "Maratha  Machiavel." 


158  INDIA. 

A  pretty  littlo  nook  of  land  is  the  Sangam,  occupy- 
in<>:  the  angle  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  two 
rivers.  The  presence  of  a  number  of  temples  adds 
picturesquoncss  to  the  spot. 

The  cantonments  lie  east  of  the  city,  and  cover 
three  or  four  times  as  much  ground.  They  extend 
from  the  northern  side  of  the  Mutha-Mula  River  to 
a  point  as  far  south  as  the  Hill  of  Parvati.  Both 
European  and  native  regiments  are  stationed  at 
Poona,  and  the  force  includes  troops  of  every  arm 
of  the  service. 

Viewed  from  the  tank  at  its  northern  base  Parvati 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  squat  hill,  sparsely 
covered  with  vegetation  and  crowned  by  the  renowned 
temple  of  the  goddess.  The  broad,  shallow  steps 
leading  to  the  summit  may  be  seen  winding  over 
the  face  of  the  elevation  in  such  an  easy  gradient 
as  to  be  virtually  a  pathway  practicable  for 
elephants. 

At  each  corner  of  an  outer  court  are  shrines  dedi- 
cated to  different  Hindu  deities,  and  in  the  centre  the 
temple  built  by  Balaji  Rao  to  Parvati,  the  "Mountain 
Goddess,"  daughter  of  Himalaya  and  Avife  of  Siva. 
The  edifice  cost  Rxl 00,000.  The  temple  contains  a 
silver  image  of  Siva,  with  his  consort  on  one  knee  and 
their  son  Ganesh  upon  the  other,  the  two  last  wrought 
in  gold. 

During  the  Diwali,  or  "  Feast  of  Lamps,"  held 
at  the   new   moon  of  November,  the  temple,  which 


SINGURH.  159 

is  capable  of  beautiful  illumination,  presents  an 
entrancing  sight. 

From  the  top  of  the  wall  of  the  outer  court  an 
extensive  view  may  be  had.  Poona  lies  to  the  north, 
hardly  a  mile  distant,  with  Kirki  beyond.  Here  Bitji 
Rao  is  said  to  have  stood  and  watched  the  defeat  of 
his  Maratha  army  in  the  battle  which  sealed  the  fate 
of  the  Peshwas.  Close  at  hand  is  the  Hira  Basrh, 
the  beautiful  "  Diamond  Garden,"  with  its  lake  and 
temples,  and  the  villa  of  the  Peshwas.  The  Hira 
Bagh  lies  upon'  the  road  to  Singurh,  the  scene  of  a 
daring  exploit  by  Tanaji,  a  Mawali  chieftain,  and  one 
of  Sivaji's  lieutenants. 

Grant  Duff  thus  describes  the  place':  "Singurh 
is  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  great  Sahyadri 
range,  near  the  point  at  which  the  Purandar  Hills 
branch  off  into  the  Dcccan.  With  these  hills  it  com- 
municates only  on  the  east  and  west  by  very  high, 
narrow  ridges,  while  on  the  south  and  north  it  has 
the  appearance  of  a  rugged,  isolated  mountain  with  an 
ascent  of  half  a  mile,  in  many  parts  nearly  perpen- 
dicular. After  arriving  at  this  height,  there  is  an  im- 
mense craggy  precipice  of  black  rock,  upwards  of 
fcu'ty  feet  high,  and  surmounting  the  whole  is  a  strong 
stone  wall,  with  towers.  The  fort  is  of  an  irregular 
shape;  tlic  exterior  j)rescnts  cm  all  sides  the  stupendous 
barrier  already  mentioned,  so  that,  except  by  the  gates, 
entrance  seems  impossible.  From  the  summit,  when 
the  atmosphere  is  clear,  is  seen  to  the  east  the  narrow 


100  I^'WA. 

and  beautiful  valley  of  the  Nira ;  to  the  north  a  great 
plain,  in  the  forepart  of  which  Poona,  where  Sivaji 
passed  his  youth,  is  a  conspicuous  object.  To  the 
south  and  west  appear  boundless  masses  of  mountains, 
lost  in  the  blue  clouds  or  mingled  by  distance  with 
the  sky.  In  that  quarter  lies  Raigurh,  from  which 
place,  directed  by  Tanaji  Malusre,  the  thousand 
Ma  walls  prepared  for  tlie  attempt  on  Singurh." 
Dispersing  into  small  parties,  they  stealthily  ap- 
proached the  citadel  by  paths  practicable  only  to 
mountaineers.  One  by  one,  with  the  aid  of  a  rope 
ladder,  they  gained  the  interior  of  the  fort  to  the 
number  of  three  hundred,  when  they  were  discovered 
by  the  garrison.  A  desperate  struggle  ensued.  The 
Mawalis,  although  greatly  outnumbered,  held  their 
own  until  Tanaji  fell  mortally  wounded.  Disheart^ 
ened  by  the  loss  of  their  leader,  the  attacking  party 
wavered  and  was  upon  the  point  of  breaking  into 
flight  when  reinforcements  arrived  under  Suryaji,  the 
brother  of  the  fallen  chief,  who  had  contrived  to 
effect  an  entrance  through  a  gateway.  Thus  encour- 
aged, the  Mawalis,  shouting  their  battle-cry,  "  Har ! 
Har !  Maho  Deo  !"  renewed  the  onslaught  with  such 
fury  that  those  of  the  Rajputs  who  were  not  killed 
made  a  desperate  attempt  to  escape  over  the  precipice, 
where  many  of  them  were  dashed  to  death  on  the 
rocks.  In  this  terrific  conflict  between  about  one 
thousand  men  on  either  side  the  attackers  lost  upAvards 
of  three  hmidred  and  the  defenders  not  less  than  five 


Colonnade   of  Palace — Tadpatri 


PERTABGUEH.  161 

huudred,  while  the  commanders  of  both  parties  were 
slain. 

Raigurh  is  now  little  more  than  a  memory,  but 
time  was  and  oft  in  the  history  of  Marashtra  when 
all  men's  eyes  turned  toward  the  rock-bound  fortress. 
Upon  its  battlements  one  may  see  the  stone  slab  upon 
which  the  great  Sivaji  was  cremated.  The  flames  of 
his  funereal  pyre  must  have  been  seen  for  miles 
aromid,  from  the  valley  below  and  the  hills  beyond. 
One  may  see  the  base  of  the  Durbar  Hall — the  build- 
ing: has  been  destroyed  to  furnish  material  for  the 
Brahman  town  of  Miihr  at  the  foot  of  the  rock. 
Here  annually  the  Maratha  chief  distributed  the 
spoils  of  sack  and  foray  to  his  followers.  Here 
Soyera  Bye,  the  last  survivor  of  Sivaji's  wives, 
called  down  the  curse  of  Bhowani  upon  her 
poltroon  step-son,  and  from  here  she  was  led  away 
to  execution. 

Looking  over  toward  the  east  one  sees  Pertabgurh. 
The  fort-crowned  rock,  bare  and  forbidding,  stands 
out  abruptly  against  the  sky.  On  the  farther  slope 
lies  a  simple  Moslem  tomb,  which  marks  the  site  of 
one  of  Sivaji's  daring  exploits.  In  1659  the  Sultdn 
of  Bijiipur,  anxious  to  punish  the  Maratha  for  some 
unusually  vexatious  depredatious,  dispatched  a  strong 
force  against  him  under  the  command  of  Afzill 
Khan.  Feigning  extreme  trepidation,  Sivaji  sent 
messengers  to  the  Khan  requesting  a  meeting  with 
him  at  the  foot  of  Pertabgurh  rock.  To  this  the 
Vol.  I.— 11 


I(i2  INDIA. 

Mnglinl  consented,  it  being  agreed  that  each  leader 
was  to  be  attended  by  but  one  follower. 

Leaving  the  bulk  of  his  army  beyond  Mahabalesh- 
war,  Afziil  Khan  came  on  towards  Pertabgurh  with 
but  fifteen  hundred  soldiers,  who  were  halted  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  the  rendezvous.  As  the  chieftains 
advanced  to  meet  each  other,  they  presented  a  striking 
contrast.  The  Mughal  general — a  veritable  giant, 
fierce  of  aspect,  with  an  enormous  sword  hung  at  his 
side — stood  haughtily  erect  to  await  the  adversary 
whom  he  heartily  despised.  The  Maratha,  small  in 
stature,  but  lithe-limbed  and  long-armed,  with  a 
frank  and  engaging  countenance,  apparently  unarmed, 
stopped  frequently  in  his  advance  as  though  overcome 
by  fear.  At  length  they  meet,  and  their  arms  go  out 
in  the  conventional  embrace  of  the  time;  but  the  left 
hand  of  the  Marath4  opens,  disclosing  a  set  of  steel 
claws,  which  he  plunges  into  the  neck  of  the  Khiin, 
quickly  following  up  the  attack  with  a  thrust  in  the 
heart  from  a  dagger  which  has  been  concealed  in  his 
right  sleeve.  At  the  same  instant  a  band  of  Mawalis, 
who  have  been  posted  in  tlie  neighboring  jungle,  rush 
upon  the  Bijapur  troops,  who  arc  surrounded  and  cut 
to  pieces. 

It  may  not  have  been  fair  play,  judged  by  our 
standard  of  ethics,  but  it  was  part  of  the  recognized 
finesse  of  the  game  in  those  days,  and  there  is  evidence 
that  Afzul  Khiin  intended  to  seize  or  kill  Sivaji  at 
this  meeting,  but  he  underrated  his  opponent. 


BIJAPUK.  1G3 

Southward  to  Bijapur,  over  fifty  leagues  of  road, 
his  saddened  soldiery  carried  the  headless  trunk  of 
Afzul  Khiin,  passing  through  a  flat  and  arid  country, 
with  here  and  there  a  group  of  palms"or  a  clump  of 
acacias. 

The  Bahmaui  Sultans  ruled  over  this  territory  until 
1489,  when  the  city  of  Bijapur  was  founded,  and  an 
independent  kingdom  established  by  Yusaf  Khdn. 
A  son  of  Amurath  of  Anatolia,  born  in  Constanti- 
nople, a  refugee  with  his  mother  when  yet  a  child, 
sold  as  a  slave,  and  drafted  into  the  body-guard  of 
Bidiir,  he  raised  himself  by  native  talent,  so  that  on 
the  dismemberment  of  the  Bahmani  Empire  he  was 
strong  enough  to  seize  for  himself  the  Sultilnate  of 
Bijapur  and  Golconda,  and  to  found  the  Adil  Shiihl 
dynasty  of  monarchs. 

Old  Bijapur  lay  within  a  thirty  mile  circumference 
of  solid  wall.  The  modern  town,  wdiose  six  mile 
length  of  wall  assumes  the  shape  of  a  skull,  with  the 
citadel  for  an  eye  socket,  was  then  the  fortress.  It  is 
a  squalid,  uninviting  place,  but  interesting  for  its 
buildings  and  historical  associations,  and  important 
as  being  the  headquarters  of  a  district  with  a  popula- 
tion of  over  six  hundred  thousand,  a  number  con- 
siderably smaller,  however,  than  the  population  of  the 
city  in  its  palmy  days. 

Over  at  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  city,  near  the 
Pad.shahpur  Gate,  stands  the  Goli  Gumdj,  the  tomb  of 
Muhammad  the  "  praiseworthy,"    the  finest  dome  in 


1G4  INDIA. 

the  world,  and  tlie  pride  of  Bijapur.  For  simple 
grandeur,  thi.s  mausoleiuu  could  hardly  be  surpassed. 
It  lacks  the  delicacy  and  richness  of  so  much  of  the 
Mughal  architecture,  but  compensates  for  that  de- 
ficiency in  rugged  strength  and  stern  simplicity. 
Approached  by  a  magnificent  gateway,  the  tomb 
raises  its  massive  bulk,  from  a  platform  six  hundred 
feet  square,  along  equilateral  lengths  of  one  hundred 
and  ninety-six  feet  to  a  similar  height.  At  each  corner 
is  a  tower,  with  seven  seven-windowed  stories,  sur- 
mounted by  a  cupola.  These  cupolas  are  reached  by 
stairways  cut  in  the  interior  of  the  main  walls.  Each 
of  these  towers  has  an  entrance  to  the  broad  gallery 
which  encircles  the  interior  of  the  dome.  The  latter 
is  constructed  so  as  to  give  an  extraordinary  echo, 
which  Cousens  characterizes  by  saying  that  "  one  pair 
of  feet  is  enough  to  awaken  the  echoes  of  the  tread  of 
a  regiment."  Each  facade  of  the  main  building  is 
divided  into  three  huge  arched  panels,  the  outer  ones 
being  blank,  and  the  larger  and  central  being  filled  by 
oblong  windows  and  a  doorway.  Three  inscriptions 
surmount  the  entrance.  These  state  that  the  end  of 
Muhammad  Sultan  was  commendable,  that  he  is  an 
inhabitant  of  Paradise,  and  that  he  has  become  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Salvation.  The  date  1659, 
if  it  refers  to  the  year  in  which  the  building  was 
commenced  or  completed,  would  indicate  that  Mu- 
hammad's successor,  Sultan  Ali  the  Second  was  the 
builder. 


BIJAPUR.  165 

On  the  top  of  this  cubiform  block  is  the  huge  dome, 
oue  hundred  and  twenty-four  feet  in  diameter,  over- 
hanging the  great  hall,  one  himdred  and  thirty-five 
feet  square,  which  is  one  of  the  largest  domed  enclo- 
sures in  the  world,  deferring  to  what  he  qualifies  as 
"a  wonder  of  constructive  skill,"  Fergusson  says: 
"The  most  ingenious  and  novel  part  of  the  construc- 
tion [of  the  dome]  is  the  mode  in  which  its  lateral  and 
outward  thrust  is  counteracted.  This  Avas  accomplished 
by  forming  the  pendentives  so  that  they  not  only  cut 
off  the  angles,  but  their  arches  intersect  one  another 
and  form  a  very  considerable  mass  of  masonry,  per- 
fectly stable  in  itself,  and  by  its  weight,  acting  up- 
wards, counteracting  any  thrust  that  can  possibly  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  it  by  the  pressure  of  the  dome." 

In  the  centre  of  the  arched  space  below  is  the 
cenotaph  of  the  Sultan.  On  one  side  of  him  his 
youngest  wife  and  his  son  and  heir,  Ali  Shah  ;  on  the 
other  his  eldest  wife,  his  daughter  and  his  favorite 
dancing-girl,  Hhamba. 

The  Goli  Gumaj  commands  an  extensive  view  in 
every  direction.  Looking  toward  the  west,  the 
modern  town  lies  in  the  immediate  foreground,  with 
the  minarets  of  the  Ibrahim  Roza  just  beyond,  and 
out  in  the  open  country  the  scattered  ruins  of  what 
was  once  a  great  city.  To  the  north  a  confused 
jumble  of  mosques  and  tombs,  pillars,  arches  and 
falling  walls  is  all  that  remains  of  the  old-time  aristo- 
cratic suburb  of  Shahpur.     Three  miles  to  tiie  south 


1G6  INDIA. 

glimmers  the  Bogum  Lake,  from  which  the  city  (^re^v 
its  water  supply  by  a  system  of  subterraneau  ducts, 
which  must  have  been  the  result  of  infiuite  labor 
expended  in  their  construction.  To  the  east  more 
ruins,  a  conical  hill,  crowned  by  the  tomb  of  a  cele- 
brated ]Muhammadan  saint,  and  far  away  in  the  hazy 
distance  the  flat-top,  low-lying  hills,  which  mark  the 
boundary  of  the  Nizam's  territory,  and  approach,  at 
their  southernmost  end,  the  rich  valley  of  the  Dhon — 
the  cornucopia  of  ancient  Bijiipur.  In  every  direction 
ruins,  fast  succumbing  to  the  obliterating  onslaught 
of  the  prickly  pear  and  jungly  overgrowth. 

Some  of  the  best  preserved  buildings  are  now 
lending  their  convenient  walls  to  Government  offices. 
Thus  the  "  Palace  of  Joy,"  which  in  days  gone  by 
sheltered  the  beauties  of  Ibrahim's  seraglio,  is  now 
occupied  by  an  miromantic  revenue  official,  and  in  the 
Bukhara  Masjid  mail-bags  lie  where  the  faithful  were 
wont  to  spread  their  musallahs.  Close  to  the  Post 
Office  is  the  ruin  of  what  was  a  fine,  though  never 
completed,  mausoleum.  The  original  plan  contem- 
plated an  edifice  grander  even  than  the  tomb  of 
Muhammad  Shah.  The  builder,  Adil  Shah,  Sivaji's 
old  antagonist,  also  commenced  and  also  failed  to 
complete  the  Jama  iSIasjid,  which  lies  about  half  a 
mile  to  the  southward  of  the  Goli  Gumaj.  Sikander 
continued  the  work,  and  it  proceeded  under  successive 
rulers,  but  for  some  unexplainable  reason  was  never 
carried  to  a  termination.     Fergusson  characterizes  it 


BIJAPUE.  167 

as  "one  of  the  finest  mosques  in  India  as  it  is" ;  but 
had  the  project  as  designed  been  consummated,  this 
would  have  been  a  magnificent  structure,  covering 
about  sixty  thousand  square  feet. 

Aurangzeb  looted  the  mosque,  as  he  did  all  other 
buildings  which  promised  to  repay  the  trouble. 
Amongst  his  plunder  was  carried  off  a  number  of 
manuscripts  from  tlie  palace,  which  stands  just  with- 
out the  eastern  ramparts  of  the  Citadel.  The  place  is 
chiefly  interesting  now  for  the  fact  that  it  contains 
some  half  a  dozen  hairs  from  the  beard  of  the  Prophet. 
These  are  exhibited  to  the  faithful  once  a  year  on  the 
occasion  of  a  religious  festival.  Meanwhile  they  are 
carefully  guarded  in  a  closed  room.  While  the  ex- 
terior of  this  building  has  nothing  in  form  or  material 
to  recommend  it  to  the  lover  of  the  beautiful,  its 
chambers  exhibit  damaged  paintings  and  evidences  of 
inlay  work  which  indicate  that  before  the  M^ork  of 
destruction  commenced  it  must  have  been  an  excep- 
tionally lovely  place. 

The  Citadel  contains  a  dozen  buildings  whose  ruins 
are  attractive  on  account  of  their  beauty  or  historical 
interest,  perhaps  both.  The  old  Durbar  Hall,  witli 
its  magnificent  arches,  cannot  fail  to  arrest  the  eye. 
Here  Aurangzeb  sat  in  state,  like  a  triumphant 
Ctesar,  and  had  the  king  and  courtiers  of  falkui 
Bijapur  brought  before  him  in  fetters. 

Lying  about  at  different  points  along  the  walls  one 
comes  across  disused  specimens  of  liijapur's  ancient 


1G8  INDIA. 

artillorv — interesting,  but  innocuous.  On  the  top  of  a 
})efuliar  oval  tower,  which  bears  date  1583,  is  the 
Lanicharri — the  "  Long  Tom  "  of  those  clays — a  piece 
thirty  feet  in  length.  In  a  bastion,  ornamented  by 
a  pair  of  lions'  heads  carved  in  the  stone,  lies  the 
^lalik-i-Maidan,  the  "  Monarch  of  the  Plain."  It  is 
one  of  the  most  cumbersome  and  ornate  pieces  of 
ordnance  in  existence.  Its  length  and  circumference 
are  each  about  fourteen  feet,  and  its  bore  two  feet  four 
inches.    At  the  muzzle  are  two  inscriptions,  as  follows : 

"  The  disciple  of  the  family  of  the  Prophet  of  God,  Abul-1-Ghazi 
Nizam  Shdh,  956  a.h." 

"  In  the  tliirtieth  year  of  his  exalted  reign,  1097  A.H. 
Shah  Alamgliir,  Conqueror  of  Infidels,  King,  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

Vanquished  Bijapur,  and  in  commemoration  of  his  triumph 
He  fulfilled  the  requirements  of  Justice,  and  annexed  the  territory 
of  the  Sliahs. 
Victory  proclaimed  itself,  and  he  took  the  Malik-i-Maiddn." 

Near  the  touch-hole,  where  a  modem  manufacturer 
might  place  his  trade-mark,  the  maker  of  this  patri- 
arch among  guns  has  left  a  record  of  his  identity  in 
the  words : 

"  The  work  of  Muhammad  Bin  Husain  Rumi." 

During  the  siege  of  Bijapur  the  balls  from  some  of 
the  city's  cannon  lit  in  the  Ibrahim  Eoza,  and  did  not 
a  little  damage,  which  has  since  been  repaired,  as  far 
as  possible,  by  the  British  Government,     The  desire 


BIJAPUR.  169 

to  bowl  over  the  Mughal  Emperor,  who  had  taken  up 
his  quarters  in  the  enclosure,  would  hardly  justify  the 
defenders  in  destroying  their  most  beautiful  building, 
and  perhaps  it  is  more  reasonable  to  attribute  the 
incident  to  bad  marksmanship. 

It  is  said  that,  impressed  by  the  constant  sight  of 
the  unfinished  tomb  of  liis  predecessor,  Ibrahim 
determined  to  commence  his  own  in  good  time,  and 
to  confine  its  dimensions  within  readily  attainable 
limits.  AVhat  it  lacked  in  extent  was  more  than 
compensated  for  in  ornamentation.  The  building  is 
rich  in  graceful  arches  and  delicate  carving.  The 
most  remarkable  of  the  latter  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
windows,  which  are  latticed  with  Arabic  characters, 
cut  out  of  the  stone  slabs.  Under  the  cornices  of  the 
front  facade  are  some  fine  specimens  of  stone  chains, 
such  as  are  to  be  found  in  different  parts  of  Soutliern 
India.  (At  Chillambaram,  for  instance,  two  pillars, 
twenty-seven  feet  apart,  are  connected  by  a  heavy 
chain  of  individual  links,  cut  out  of  a  solid  stone.) 
Fergusson  says  :  "  How  the  roof  is  supported  is  a 
mystery  which  can  only  be  understood  by  those  who 
are  familiar  with  the  use  the  Indians  make  of  masses 
of  concrete,  wliich,  with  good  mortar,  seems  capable 
of  infinite  aj)plications  unknown  in  Europe."  The 
dome  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of  minarets  of  various 
sizes.  The  hand  of  the  Persian  architect  is  visible  in 
the  genera]  design,  and  in  some  of  the  ])articular 
effects.     The  entii-e  edifice  is  surrounded  by  a  portico 


170  INDIA. 

fifteen  feet  broad,  admitting  to  the  cenota])h  chamber 
throngh  se\'eu  arches  on  each  side.  The  ceiling  of 
this  colonnade  is  beautified  by  the  most  chaste  carving, 
consisting  of  texts  of  the  Kuran,  inclosed  in  floi'al 
borders,  no  two  borders  being  of  the  same  design. 
There  are  several  inscriptions  on  the  building.  One 
upon  the  south  side  states  that  "  Taj-i-Sultan  issued 
orders  for  the  construction  of  the  Roza,  at  the  beauty 
of  which  Paradise  stood  amazed.  He  expended  one 
and  a  half  lakhs  of  huns  ($350,000)  in  the  worii — and 
nine  hundred  more." 

They  deserved  a  better  fate  —  the  Adil  Shahi 
descendants  of  the  Tilrki  trooper.  It  was  a  mar- 
velous city  that  they  built  up  in  the  two  hundred 
years  of  their  rule,  and  they  left  some  magnificent 
monuments  to  perpetuate  their  memory. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE    DECCAN,   HAIDARABAD,  GOLCONDA,  SECUNDER- 
ABAD,    ELLORA,    RAUZA. 

Still,  the  I)eccan  country — much  the  same  every- 
where. Here  and  there  a  walled-in  chister  of  mud- 
huts,  roofed  with  pahii-leaf  thatoli,  and  all  around  fields 
of  grain,  tobacco,  castor  or  cotton — a  fertile  land,  but 
a  thirsty.  To  satisfy  its  demands  every  well  and 
stream  is  taxed  to  the  utmost,  the  contributions  being 
extracted  by  means  which  differ  but  little  if  at  all 
from  those  employed  a  thousand  years  ago.  Oxen, 
goaded  by  almost  naked  peasants,  drag  primitive 
wooden  ploughs  through  the  slushy  fields.  Water  is 
drawn  from  a  well  by  means  of  a  seesaw-like  arrange- 
ment, consisting  of  a  long  pole,  with  a  large  skin 
vessel  at  one  end  and  a  boy  or  perhaps  two  at  the 
other.  "When  the  vessel  comes  uj),  a  man  tilts  its 
contents  into  the  runlets  which  traverse  the  field. 
When  water  fails,  a  few  miles  of  desert  break  the 
monotoncjus  repetition  of  cultivated  fields.  In  places 
the  expanse  of  plain  is  broken  by  a  range  of  low, 
bare  hills,  besprinkled  with  ruined  fortifications. 
Along   the   road  pass  women    in  almost  transparent 

171 


172  INDIA. 

sarees,  with  yellow  flowers  stuck  in  their  knotted 
hair,  and  men  armed  to  the  teeth.  Not  but  that  the 
country  is  as  safe  and  peaceable  as  Central  Park,  but 
the  llaidarabiidl  has  a  penchant  for  carrying  weapons 
which  he  never  uses.  All  classes  are  addicted  to  the 
practice,  though  not  to  the  extent  that  they  were 
twenty  years  ago.  Still  the  subject  of  the  Jsizani, 
though  he  be  a  sweetmeat  seller  in  the  bazaar,  who 
does  not  at  least  carry  a  dagger  in  his  waistband  is  a 
rara  avis. 

As  the  capital  is  approached  the  country  becomes 
broken,  rocky  and  crag  strewn — the  evidence  of 
volcanic  action,  no  doubt.  Huge  boulders  lie  about 
in  every  direction,  giving  the  appearance,  from  a 
short  distance,  of  the  ruins  of  some  city  of  giants. 
The  natives  will  tell  you  that  this  was  the  workshop 
of  the  Creator  at  the  beginning  of  the  world,  and  that 
this  is  the  debris  which  remained  when  the  work  was 
completed. 

This  volcanic  region  has  yielded  gold,  minerals  and 
precious  stones  in  great  quantities.  To  the  east  of 
the  city  stands  the  craggy  elevation  of  the  Golconda 
of  the  Arabian  Nights  and  of  early  European  adven- 
turers. Here  is  the  "  Valley  of  Jewels,"  where 
precious  stones  lay  as  thick  as  grain  on  the  threshing- 
floor.  And  here  to-day  loose  diamonds  are  picked  up 
in  water-beds  after  the  rains.  So  did  a  goatherd  pick 
up  the  "  Nizam,"  which,  after  he  had  clumsily  broken 
big  pieces  from  it,  remained  one  of  the  largest  dia- 


HAIDAEABAD.  173 

monds  in  the  world,  valued  at  three  million  dollars. 
These  rocks  gave  up  the  world-renowned  Koh-i-Nur, 
which  passed,  through  many  adventures,  from  the 
turban  of  the  Great  INInghal  to  the  crown  of  the 
British  monarch.  Originally  nine  hundred  carats  in 
weight — truly  a  "  Mountain  of  Light" — it  has  been 
reduced  by  ruthless  paring  to  oue  hundred  and  eight 
carats. 

Tavernier  tells  us  that  when  he  visited  Golconda 
sixty  thousand  men  were  engaged  iu  the  search  for 
the  precious  stones.  Marco  Polo,  too,  who  came 
here  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  relates 
that  the  inhabitants  found  "  plenty  of  diamonds"  in 
the  hills  and  rocky  beds  of  the  torrents.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  this  field  is  not  systematically  worked,  but 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  would  yield  great 
results  under  scientific  treatment.  Doubtless  the 
Nizam  is  wise  to  allow  his  buried  treasures  to  lie  un- 
disturbed. 

The  ancient  capital,  for  such  it  was  previous 
to  the  founding  of  Haidarabiid,  is  the  summer  resi- 
dence of  the  Court,  and  it  holds  the  tombs  of  former 
rulers.  All  but  one  of  the  Kutb  Shahi  dynasty  were 
laid  to  rest  outside  the  fortress.  The  last  of  the  line 
died  an  exile  at  Dalaufcibiid,  having  fallen  captive  to 
Aurangzeb,  when  the  Mughal  Emperor,  after  a  pro- 
trac^ted  siege,  gained  through  treachery  what  he  had 
failed  to  secure  by  force  of  arms. 

An  embrasured  and  moated  wall  interspersed  vvitii 


174  INDIA. 

granite  bastions  encircles  the  ft)rtifications.  Many  of 
the  old  guns  remain  in  various  stages  of  decay,  some 
of  them  split,  choked,  or  ^ith  breeches  blown  out,  just 
as  they  were  left  by  the  Mughal  conqueror. 

The  Fort  contains  numerous  ruins  of  palaces  and 
mosques.  A  high  wall  surrounds  the  Xau  Mahiil,  or 
"  Nine  Palaces,"  which  stand  in  a  well-kept  garden. 
Surmounting  all  is  the  Biila  Hisar,  or  Citadel,  where 
the  old  treasury  and  palace  lie  in  ruins.  From  the 
latter  a  subterranean  passage,  which  is  doubtless  full 
of  snakes  and  scorpions,  leads,  it  is  said,  to  the  Gosha 
Mahal,  three  miles  distant. 

The  citadel  of  Golconda  dominates  the  surrounding 
country  and  commands  the  modern  capital,  which 
from  its  summit  might  be  shelled  to  ruins.  Five 
miles  over  to  the  east,  from  a  setting  of  cool  green 
pleasances,  rise  the  spires  and  domes  of  the  city 
which  Muhammad  Kuli  founded  in  1589,  and 
named  Bhanagar  after  his  favorite  mistress,  the  lovely 
Bhagmati,  whose  memory  is  still  perpetuated  by  a 
mosque  upon  an  eminence  about  a  mile  away,  on 
the  same  side  and  to  the  northward.  Beyond  all,  to 
the  north,  stretches  the  vast  cantonment  of  Secunder- 
abad.  Everywhere  the  level  expanse  of  plain  is 
broken  by  squat  hills  and  syenite  rocks.  Immediately 
below  and  around  the  Citadel,  within  and  beyond  the 
outer  walls  of  the  fortification,  are  scattered  the  ruins  of 
the  ancient  city.  To  the  eastward  and  northward,  in 
what  was  a  suburb  of  old  Golconda,  stand  the  noble 


HAIDARABAD.  175 

tombs  of  the  Kutb  Shjihi  kings.  Aiirangzeb's  soldiery 
quartered  themselves  iu  these  buildings,  and  the  damage 
which  they  eiFected  has  been  augmented  in  the  succeed- 
ing centuries.  In  comparatively  recent  times  the  edifices 
have  been  robbed  of  much  of  their  lighter  ornamenta- 
tion by  European  visitors.  The  late  talented  Minister 
of  the  Nizam,  Sir  Salar  Jang,  whose  able  and  cul- 
tured son  at  present  fills  the  office,  carried  out  extensive 
repairs  among  such  of  the  tombs  as  M-erc  not  beyond 
treatment,  and  replanted  the  gardens  which  formerly 
surrounded  them.  This  aggregation  of  almost  a  score 
of  royal  tombs  includes  those  of  some  of  the  women 
of  the  family,  and  notably  that  of  Haiyat  Baksh 
Begum,  who  was  the  daughter  of  one  of  the  monarchs 
buried  here,  the  wife  of  another,  and  the  mother  of  a 
third.  The  most  stately  of  these  mausoleums  is  that 
of  the  Sultan  Muhammad,  the  founder  of  Haidanibad, 
and  the  constructor  of  many  splendid  buildings.  A 
heap  of  ruins  upon  the  outer  edge  of  this  burial- 
ground  indicates  the  spot  where,  before  the  fall  of  his 
line,  Abu'l  Hassan  had  commenced  to  erect  for  liim- 
self  a  house  of  death,  in  close  proximity  to  the  remains 
of  his  ancestors. 

llaidarabad  is  a  comparatively  modern  city,  and 
its  present  ruling  family  is  of  no  ancient  des(!ent; 
The  founder  of  the  house  was  a  Turk  named  Chin 
Kulich  Khan,  who,  iu  the  early  years  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  held  the  post  of  Governor  of  the 
Deccau,  with  the  title  uf  Xizuui-ul-Mu!k,  or  "  llcgu- 


17G  INDIA. 

lator  of  the  State."  lie  was  also  styled  Asof  Jali, 
which  name  Muhammadan  ti^aditioii  assigns  to  the 
]\Iiiiister  of  Solomon.  During  the  reign  of  Jalutndar 
Shah  he  must  have  been  a  power  in  the  state,  for  he 
had  one  of  the  profligate  Peshwa's  favorite  daueing 
girls  whipped  in  the  streets  of  Delhi  for  having  made 
an  insulting  remark  to  him.  AVheu  the  Persian  in- 
vader had  defeated  the  army  of  Muhammad  Shiili  it 
was  Nizam-ul-^Iulk  to  whom  the  negotiations  for  the 
terms  of  surrender  were  entrusted,  and  it  was  he  who, 
though  without  success,  when  all  were  afraid  to  ap- 
proach the  enraged  Xadir,  pleaded  with  the  conqueror 
to  stay  his  soldiers  during  the  fearful  sack  which 
ensued.  By  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1748,  the 
Nizam-ul-]\Iulk  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the 
independent  ruler  of  the  Deccan,  exercising  a  suze- 
rainty over  the  Karnatik.  He  left  three  sons  and  a 
grandson,  who  contested  the  succession  with  one 
another.  During  the  ensuing  twelve  years  each  held 
the  throne  for  a  brief  space.  Two  of  them  were 
murdered  and  one  killed  in  battle,  leaving  the  famous 
Haidar  Ali  in  possession  of  the  city  and  territory 
which  bear  his  name. 

The  Xizam  is  the  premier  prince  of  India.  His 
rule  extends  over  one  hundred  thousand  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  fourteen  millions. 

Haidarabad  is  essentially  a  Muhammadan  town. 
Its  walls  harbor  few  but  Muslim ;  the  Plindus  who 
have  business  here   live  without   the   gates,  in   the 


HAIDARABAD.  177 

suburb,  which  lies  on  the  other  side  of  the  Musah  and 
is  reached  by  three  bridges — needless  in  the  hot  season, 
when  the  river  dwindles  to  the  dimensions  of  a  creek. 
The  long,  dusty  streets  of  the  capital,  with  white- 
washed shop-fronts  formed  by  Saracenic  arches;  the 
mosques  occurring  at  frequent  intervals;  the  tall, 
sculptured  minarets  seen  constantly  rising  above  the 
city  roofs ;  the  sign-boards  bearing  Persian,  Arabic  or 
Hindu  inscriptions ;  the  names  of  the  shopkeepers 
and  the  multiplicity  of  the  beggars  on  the  mosque 
steps  and  at  the  gateways  give  the  general  impression 
of  a  sort  of  Indian  Damascus  or  Cairo.  This  is  in- 
tensified by  the  busy  throng  threading  the  main  streets 
with  a  perpetual  tide  of  life ;  for  here  one  sees  on 
every  side  the  snow-white  turban  of  the  "  true  be- 
liever" mino^Hno;  with  the  red  tarbosh  of  the  Muham- 
madan  negro  and  the  green  caftan  worn  by  the  Sayid 
or  the  Hadji  who  has  made  his  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

From  the  architectural  point  of  view  Plaidarabad  has 
little  to  boast  of.  Still  it  is  an  extremely  interesting 
city,  and  one  which  in  some  respects  has  no  counter- 
jiart  in  India.  Here  are  more  beggars,  more  soldiers 
— or  at  least  more  armed  men,  for  it  is  sometimes 
diificult  to  make  a  distinction — more  elephants  and 
more  veiled  women  than  one  will  meet  anywhere  else 
in  llie  country. 

A  straight,  ])road  avenue  traverses  the  city  from 
one  end  to  the  other.  At  the  central  point  it  is 
intersected  by  another,  the  four  thoroughfares  cou- 
Vou  I.— 12 


178  INDIA. 

verging  at  the  Char  Miuiir,  whose  four  arches, 
fifty  feet  iu  height,  set  true  to  the  cardinal  points  of 
the  compass,  are  designed  to  face  them.  On  the 
"■  four  towers,"  two  hundred  feet  above  the  busy 
crowd,  floats  the  standard  of  Haidanibad,  a  simple 
wheaten  cake  upon  a  yellow  field.  When  the  first 
Nizam,  so  the  story  goes,  was  about  to  embark  upon 
a  perilous  enterprise,  a  holy  man  gave  him  a  chnpatti 
for  a  talisman.  Chin  Kilich  carefully  kept  the 
prize,  and  being  sufficiently  superstitious  to  attribute 
the  success  of  his  venture  largely  to  his  possession  of 
the  chupatti,  adopted  it  as  the  insignia  of  his  house. 
It  is  depicted  by  a  solid  circle  of  gray  or  silver, 
which  is  quite  generally  supposed  to  represent  the 
moon. 

Westward  toward  the  Delhi  Gate  the  street  passes 
the  palace  of  the  late  Sir  Salar  Jang.  It  is  a  fine 
building,  occupying  a  prominent  position,  and,  like  all 
the  residences  of  wealthy  Musalmans,  it  consists  of  a 
melange  of  courtyards  and  quadrangles,  pillared 
porticoes  and  arched  halls,  fountains  and  flowering 
plant*;. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  these  delight- 
ful places  is  the  perfect  quiet  and  seclusion  they  afix>rd 
in  the  midst  of  a  noisy  city,  a  condition  quite  un- 
known to  the  denizen  of  a  Western  metropolis.  You 
step  out  of  the  glare  and  bustle  of  a  main  thorough- 
fare ;  the  gate  closes  upon  you,  and  iu  five  minutes 
you  are  reclining  in  a  dim  veranda  or  gallery  look- 


H  AID  ARAB  AD.  179 

ing  into  a  court  paved  with  marble,  open  to  the  sky, 
and  filled  with  blossoming  shrubs.  The  air  is  cool, 
and  laden  with  sweet  perfumes ;  a  subdued  light 
soothes  the  senses ;  the  place  is  sunk  in  silence,  save 
for  the  soft  splash  of  the  fountain,  and  the  occasional 
gurgle  of  the  hookah.  It  is  hard  to  realize  that  you 
are  within  a  few  yards  of  a  hot,  dusty,  clamoring  con- 
course of  humanity. 

Within  the  precincts  of  the  royal  palace  are  to  be 
found  six  or  seven  thousand  people  when  the  Nizjim 
is  in  the  city.  The  enclosure  embraces  three  large 
quadrangles,  which  are  filled  with  soldiers,  servants, 
horses  and  elephants.  There  is  a  conglomeration  of 
white  buildiugs,  more  or  less  artistic,  and  serving 
various  purposes.  The  receptions  and  entertainments 
given  here,  which  are  usually  attended  by  some  prom- 
inent personages,  have  their  quota  of  European  guests^ 
and  are  said  to  be  exceptionally  brilliant. 

Over  against  the  west  wall,  upon  an  elevated  site, 
stands  a  larger  and  older  palace,  which  was  a  few 
years  ago  occupied  by  the  brother-in-law  of  the 
Nizam.  It  contains  a  number  of  objects  of  interest, 
not  the  least  of  Avhich  being  a  troop  of  saddle  ostriches. 
This  strange  species  of  cavalry  is  eclij)sed,  liowever,  by 
the  regiment  of  Amazon  infantry  maintained  by  this 
prince.  The  Amir  has  a  large  collection  of  the  Swiss 
and  German  mechanical  toys  and  devices  which  find 
so  ready  a  sale  among  the  Indian  princes;  and  of 
course  there  is  the  armory,  a  never-failing  feature  of 


ISO  INDIA. 

a  llaidarabad  palace,  with  its  great  variety  of  lethal 
wcajwns. 

Another  treasure  house  of  curiosities  is  the  palace 
lying  in  a  suburb  beyond  the  southern  wall  of  the 
city,  and  reached  by  a  causeway  running  through  the 
swampy  paddy  fields. 

Within  pistol-shot  of  the  baradari,  at  the  back 
of  the  silk  merchants'  bazaar,  in  a  small  native  house, 
there  lived  some  years  ago,  and  perhaps  does  still,  one 
of  India's  submerged  Europeans.  As  these  unfor- 
tunates do  not  figure  in  the  census,  their  number  is 
purely  conjectural,  but  it  is  quite  likely  that  there  are 
two  thousand  or  more  of  them  scattered  over  the 
country,  sometimes  drifting  about  like  loafers  among 
an  alien  population,  sometimes  grafted  to  one  of  the 
lower  strata  of  the  native  population  of  a  city.  Now 
and  again  they  are  men  of  birth  and  education,  who 
have  for  one  reason  or  another  become  outcast  from 
their  own  people,  but  more  often  the  ranks  of  Indian 
loaferdom  are  recruited  by  deserters  from  the  British 
army,  time-expired  soldiers  who  have  married  native 
women,  locomotive  drivers,  railroad  foremen,  and  the 
like,  victims  of  strong  drink,  or  natural  vagabonds. 

The  Encjlishman  who  used  to  live  down  the  little 
lane  in  Haidariibad  had  been  an  officer  under  the 
John  Company,  and  had  served  in  the  Mutiny.  He 
could  not  be  induced  to  talk  of  that  portion  of  his 
life,  but  that  much  his  neifjhbors  had  learned  from  the 
wives,  who  were  proud  of  the  fact  naturally,  and  never 


HAIDARABAD.  181 

missed  an  opportunity  of  displaying  a  medal  which 
had  been  earned  by  hard  service.  Ten  years  ago  he 
was  a  handsome,  well-knit  man,  about  sixty-five  years 
of  age,  bearded  and  bronzed.  He  had  adopted  the 
dress  and  religion  of  the  Muhammadans,  and  followed 
their  mode  of  living.  He  was  married  to  two  women 
— sisters  or  half-sisters — of  Persian  descent,  who 
were  in  possession  of  some  small  means  upon  which 
he  lived,  for  he  earned  nothing,  and  indeed  did  noth- 
ing, holding  little  intercourse  with  any  outside  of  his 
own  household,  although  in  manner,  appearance  and 
speech  he  might  have  passed  for  a  native  anywhere. 
He  shunned  Europeans,  but  craved  their  society. 
The  only  being  of  his  own  race  with  whom  he  main- 
tained any  relations  was  a  priest  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  to  see  whom,  at  rare  intervals,  he 
trudged  over  seven  miles  of  road  and  back.  He  was 
engaged  in  some  mysterious  literary  work  which, 
when  completed,  would  be  a  monument  of  Oriental 
lore,  but  that  was  probably  an  illusion  of  a  diseased 
mind.  He  was  an  orthodox  Muhammadan,  more 
devout  and  punctilious  than  the  majority  of  the 
co-religionists  about  him.  What  besetting  sin  or 
cardinal  vice  had  brought  about  that  man's  downfall 
it  would  be  imjiossible  to  surmise. 

Tiie  Ilaidarabadi  is  a  swaggering,  indejx;ndent 
sort  of  fellow,  not  given  to  over-much  salaaming  or 
sahibing ;  nevertheless,  or  perhaps  the  more  on  that 
account,  the    Anglo-Saxon    is    likely  to    feel    more 


Ig2  INDIA. 

drawn  toward  the  native  here  than  in  any  other  city. 
The  Muluininiadan  gets  closer  to  the  European  than 
the  Plindu  ever  does  or  can.  In  the  case  of  the  latter 
there  is  the  barrier  of  caste,  of  course ;  but  apart  from 
that,  the  Moslem  exhibits  more  of  the  qualities  we 
admire  and  respect  in  a  man.  He  is  almost  invaria- 
bly brave,  dignified  and  frank,  and  as  Kipling  says, 
in  comparing  the  races  : 

"A  Hindu  is  an  excellent  person,  but — but  there  is  no  knowing 
what  is  in  his  heart,  and  he  is  hedged  about  by  so  many  strange 
observances.  .  .  .  But  a  man  who  will  eat  with  you,  and  take  j'our 
tobacco,  sinking  the  fiction  that  it  has  been  doctored  with  infidel 
wines,  cannot  be  very  bad." 

It  might  be  better  for  the  people  and  the  future 
government  of  India  if  the  Musalman  of  good  birth 
would  avail  himself  more  frequently  of  the  existing 
educational  facilities.  As  it  is,  the  other  race,  which 
is  the  less  disingenuous,  to  say  the  least,  fills  the  col- 
leges, and  occupies  a  great  majority  of  the  Govern- 
ment positions.  It  must  not  be  inferred  that  the 
Hindus  do  not  produce  good  men.  Each  Presidency 
can  bear  witness  to  the  contrary ;  but  iu  each  you  will 
find  commissioners  who,  having  to  deal  with  unre- 
ceptive,  uncommunicative,  inscrutable  Brahman  subor- 
dinates, sigh  for  a  few  more  Muhammadan  gentlemen 
in  the  positions  of  assistants. 

Haidarabad  is  the  chief  of  the  native  states,  and 
in  the  event  of  a  serious  war  with  an  outside  power 
— Russia,  for  instance — would  prove  a  powerful  ally 


IIAIDARABAD.  183 

to  the  British,  The  Niziiin  maintains  a  well-disci- 
plined army  of  thirty  thousand,  trained  by  English 
officers,  and  this  force  might  easily  be  increased  four- 
fold in  case  of  need ;  for  the  Haidarabadi  is,  by  in- 
clination and  heredity,  a  natural  soldier.  Indeed, 
this  applies  to  the  Mnhammadaus  in  general,  and  to 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  Hindu  pojmlation.  If 
the  occasion  should  ever  arise,  the  world  will  be 
amazed  at  the  military  resources  of  India.  It  is  not 
too  much  to  assert  that  within  twelve  months  the 
country  could  furnish  a  splendid  army  of  a  million 
horse  and  foot,  including  the  finest  irregular  cavalry 
the  world  has  ever  seen.  With  the  advantages  of 
acclimatization  and  familiarity  with  the  peculiarly 
strategetical  topography,  such  a  force  might  be 
depended  upon  to  repel  any  invader. 

On  the  occasion  of  the  annual  Langar  review,  which 
takes  place  during  the  festival  of  Muharram,  the 
Nizam's  army  affords  a  magnificent  spectacle  in  the 
march  past  the  palace — the  troopers,  splendidly 
mounted  and  sitting  their  chargers  like  the  born 
horsemen  that  they  are. 

The  Xiziira  is  a  keen  s])ortsman  and  maintains  a  fine 
polo  ground  and  two  or  thrce  preserves  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  city.  The  latter,  which  are  similar  to  tliose 
of  native  princes  elsewhere,  are  tracts  of  rough 
country,  inclosed  by  high  stone  walls.  Within  these 
bounds,  doer,  bear  and  other  large  game  are  kept. 
When  a  drive  is  decided  upon,  the  gunners  take  post 


184  INDIA. 

in  favorable  positions,  entirely  out  of  danger,  by  the 
Avay,  and  the  game  is  sent  down  to  them  by  the 
beatei*s.  The  Nizam's  shooting-grounds  are  strictly 
preserved,  and  the  animals  are  so  seldom  disturbed 
that  they  are  much  less  wild  than  when  in  their 
natural  habitats.  A  European  visitor  is  likely  to  be 
invited  to  take  part  in  a  battu,  and  he  will  accept 
the  invitation  for  the  sake  of  the  amenities,  or  in  a 
spirit  of  curiosity,  although  the  method  of  slaughter 
may  not  be  quite  consistent  with  his  ideas  of  sport. 

The  cheetah,  or  "  hunting  leopard,"  of  which  the 
Kizam  has  several  very  fine  specimens,  is  frequently 
employed  in  the  chase  in  Southern  India,  where  its 
favorite  prey,  the  black  buck,  abounds.  In  the  cool 
of  the  morning  and  evening  these  beautiful  beasts 
are  to  be  found  in  large  numbers  among  the  young 
crops  in  the  flat  lauds. 

The  chase  with  the  cheetah  has  many  points  of 
resemblance  to  falconry.  The  approach  and  attack 
of  the  quadruped  is  not  unlike  the  flight  and  final 
swoop  of  the  hawk.  The  sport  is  a  very  old  one, 
and  was  m  vogue  among  the  Hindus  long  before  the 
IMuhammadan  occupation  of  the  country. 

The  cheetah,  hooded  and  leashed  like  a  coursing 
hound,  is  taken  to  the  field  of  action  on  a  flat  car  or 
in  a  wooden  cage.  A  herd  of  buck  being  sighted, 
the  "hunting  leopard"  is  unhooded  and  slipped. 
With  a  swift,  sinuous  and  graceful  movement,  he 
glides  towards  the  quarry.     Crouching  until  his  belly 


HAIDAEABAD.  185 

brushes  the  earth,  with  outstretched  tail,  he  swings  his 
seven  or  eight  feet  of  supple  length  to  right  or  left,  as 
cover  offers,  and  so,  keeping  to  windward,  arrives 
within  striking  distance  of  the  unsuspecting  victim. 
Selecting  his  mark,  with  a  mighty  bound,  he  flies 
through  the  air  towards  it  with  such  force  as  to  bring 
it  to  the  ground.  Despite  its  proverbial  agility,  the 
deer  cannot  regain  its  feet  befoi-e  tlie  cheetah,  which 
is  quicker  still,  has  clenched  his  teeth  in  the  throat  of 
the  doomed  animal. 

To  perform  this  feat  of  agility — for  he  has  no  great 
strength — which  is  a  daily  incident  of  his  natural  life, 
the  cheetah  requires  no  training.  His  tuition  consists 
merely  in  teaching  him  to  surrender  his  prey  without 
tearing  it  to  pieces,  and  as  soon  as  he  learns  that  the 
internal  organs  of  the  creature  are  the  invariable 
reward  for  a  kill,  he  satisfies  himself  by  sucking  the 
blood  from  the  wound  in  the  throat,  until  the  hunters 
come  up  and  drive  him  off. 

Upon  an  elevated  terrace,  overlooking  the  wooded 
and  rocky  stretch  of  hunting  ground,  stands  a  gray 
stone  obelisk.  It  is  quite  plain,  save  for  the  initials 
J.  R.,  carved  upon  each  of  its  four  faces.  There  is  no 
date ;  there  are  no  words  to  tell  the  story  of  the  re- 
markable Frenchman  who  lies  buried  beneath  this 
simple  monument. 

During  his  life  the  Haidarabudis  fairly  worshijjcd 
this  "son  of  Moses,"  as  they  called  him,  and  to  this 
day  each  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Jean  Raymond 


J  so  INDIA. 

is  the  occasion  of  a  graiul  demonstration  by  the 
troops  and  citizens  of  Haidarabad.  The  natives 
hereabouts  will  tell  you  marvelous  stories  of  the 
prowess  of  the  general  and  his  countrymen  who 
served  under  him ;  of  dashing  deeds  performed  under 
the  eye  of  the  great  Haidar;  and  how  Raymond's 
French  battalions  held  the  field  at  Kurdla  when  All's 
cavalry  was  in  full  flight. 

The  road  which  runs  paE:t  the  great  Sangar  tank  to 
Secuuderabad,  five  miles  from  the  capital,  is  resplen- 
dent in  the  cool  of  the  evening  w^ith  bright  uniforms 
of  out-riders  and  escorts,  gay  costumes  and  magnifi- 
cent equipages.  It  is  the  favorite  drive  of  the 
Europeans  from  the  cantonments,  and  the  grandees 
from  the  city.  Along  its  length  are  strung  handsome 
villas,  occupied  by  the  Nizam's  nobles,  British  officials 
and  wealthy  merchants.  Upon  the  route  stands  the 
Church  of  St.  George,  and  in  its  graveyard  rests  an 
Eurasian  whose  family  was  strangely  and  intimately 
connected  with  Haidarabad. 

Tow^ard  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  General 
Palmer,  an  officer  in  the  East  India  Company's 
service,  w^hose  portrait  may  be  seen  in  one  of  the 
neighboring  houses,  married  a  Begum  of  Oudh,  a 
IMusalman  lady  of  rank  and  w'ealth.  William 
Palmer,  who  was  interred  in  St.  George's  churchyard, 
was  the  result  of  that  union.  With  his  mother's 
money  he  started  a  banking  house  on  the  same  prin- 
ciples as  those  of  the  usurious  native  concerns,  which 


SECUNDEEABAD.  187 

from  time  immemorial  have  flourished  in  all  parts  of 
the  country  at  the  expense  of  the  needy.  In  the  time 
of  the  notorious  Bnthmau  minister  Chandu  Lai, 
"  King  Palmer,"  as  he  came  to  be  called  on  account 
of  his  extraordinary  influence,  financed  the  Nizam's 
government  at  the  comfortable  rate  of  twenty-four 
per  cent,  interest.  The  lucrative  business  was  ulti- 
mately suppressed  by  the  British  authorities,  who 
discovered  that  Palmer  and  Chandu  Lai,  taking 
advantage  of  the  Nizam's  excessive  devotion  to 
pleasure  and  neglect  of  business,  had  in  collusion 
been  systematically  robbing  the  state.  This  was  one 
of  the  affairs  for  which  Warren  Hastings  was  held 
partially  responsible.  The  finale  entailed  the  loss  of 
vast  sums  upon  the  half-caste  "  King ; "  but,  like  his 
father,  he  had  turned  matrimony  to  good  account,  so 
that  his  later  years  were  made  comfortable  by  the 
fortune  received  from  his  third  wife,  who  is  fittingly 
mentioned  in  terms  of  eulogistic  gratitude  upon  his 
tombstone. 

The  cantonment  of  Secunderiibad,  covering  about 
twenty  square  miles,  is  almost  the  largest  in  India. 

Within  an  hour's  march  to  the  northeast  is  an 
entrenched  and  fortified  refuge  position,  to  which  the 
British  troops  could  retire  with  safety  in  case  of  need, 
and  where  tliey  could  withstand  an  indefinite  siege; 
for  the  place  is  well  protected  by  lieavy  artillery,  and 
has  an  ample  water  supply.  Not  the  least  important 
feature  of  the  camp  is  an  absolute  bomb-proof  shelter 


188  INDIA. 

fr.v  non-combatants.  The  Mutiny  taught  much  to  the 
])iitish,  which  they  will  never  need  to  learn  again. 

In  the  northwest  corner  of  the  state  of  Haidarubtid 
are  the  world-famous  caves  of  Ellora. 

A  few  miles  distant  is  the  busy  little  town  of 
Aurangabad,  which,  like  many  another  old  Indian 
city,  has  seen  better  days.  Malik  Ambar,  the  Abyss- 
inian Sultan,  made  his  capital  here  when  "Good 
Queen  Bess "  was  occupying  the  throne  of  England. 
About  a  mile  distant  is  the  old-time  burial  ground, 
where  Aurangzeb  erected  a  splendid  mausoleimi  to 
the  memory  of  his  daughter  Rabia  Durrani.  With 
commendable  generosity,  and  an  appreciation  of 
ancient  art  not  always  displayed  by  native  potentates, 
the  Nizam  caused  this  building  to  be  restored  at 
great  expense  to  himself.  It  is  extremely  beautiful,  and 
contains  some  exquisite  specimens  of  carved  marble 
lattice  work.  The  grave,  according  to  orthodox  Mu- 
hammadan  custom,  which  was  more  frequently  than 
not  violated  by  those  in  high  places,  is  uncovered. 

Near  by  are  the  caves  of  Aurangabdd,  which  may 
be  reached  by  traversing  very  rough  ground  and 
clambering  up  some  three  hundred  feet  of  difficult 
rock ;  but,  Avith  Ellora  in  prospect,  one  is  satisfied  to 
forego  the  feat,  unless  seriously  in  need  of  violent 
exercise. 

At  Ellora  there  is  a  village  of  a  few  hundred 
inhabitants,  who  rejoice  in  the  possession  of  a 
wonder-working    shrine,  whose    curative    properties 


ELLORA.  189 

attract  diseased  and  crippled  pilgrims  from  all  parts 
of  the  Deccan.  The  villagers  are  a  sound  and 
healthy  lot,  for  the  reason  that  they  will  not  allow  a 
man  of  impaired  physique  to  stay  among  them,  lest 
his  presence  should  discredit  the  efficacy  of  their 
health-dealing  fane. 

The  celebrated  rock  temples  are  distributed  over 
the  sloping  face  of  a  crescent-shaped  j)lateau  for 
the  space  of  a  mile  and  a  half. 

These  caves  are  the  most  extensive,  and  the 
temples  the  finest  in  India;  indeed,  they  are  the 
most  stupendous  architectural  works  ever  executed 
by  man.  The  oldest  date  from  200  B.C.  at  latest, 
and  for  many  centuries  have  been  the  objective  point 
of  pilgrims  from  every  part  of  the  country ;  for  they 
are  threefold  in  character,  and  attracted  Buddhists, 
Brdhraans  and  Jains  alike.  In  these  recesses  the 
little  Hindu  princess  Dewal  Devi  took  refuge  from 
the  Great  Mughal,  who  had  slain  her  Rajput  father, 
and  taken  her  mother  into  his  seraglio.  Far  as  was 
her  hiding-place  from  the  old  home  in  Gujarat,  the 
Emperor's  emissaries  found  the  little  woman  and 
carried  her  off  to  Deliii,  where  she  eventually  was 
married  to  one  of  Ala-ud-din's  sons. 

The  rock  temples  of  Ellora  number  about 
thirty-five,  the  majority  being  of  Brahman  origin. 
Tlie  slope  of  the  hill  is  fairly  honeycombed ; 
there  cannot  be  fewer  than  forty  excavations  of 
various   descriptions;    chaitya   caves,    and    Braliinan 


100  INDIA. 

temples;  viliaras  and  hulls.  Hero  a  courtyard, 
M'ith  carved  obelisk  or  pillared  arch,  affording  an 
imposing  entrance ;  there  a  wall  of  natural  rock 
concealing  the  temple  behind.  In  this  hall  Buddha 
sits  in  solemn  solitude  beneath  a  domed  roof;  in 
that,  all  the  gods  of  the  Puranic  Pantheon  appear 
to  be  holding  high  revel  amid  the  most  fantastic 
surroundings. 

At  thought  of  the  inexhaustible  labor  that  wrought 
these  wonders  in  the  solid  rock,  the  work  of  the 
Pyramids  fades  into  the  background  of  commonplace. 
But  the  crowning  glory  of  Ellora  is  Kailas,  the 
marvelous  Temple  of  Siva.  Here  the  superabundant 
energy  of  the  workmen,  or  the  insatiable  ambition 
of  the  master  mind,  would  not  be  satisfied  with  a 
mere  excavation,  but  must  needs  hew  within  the  rocky 
mass  a  temple  as  complete  as  though  it  stood  under 
the  sky  upon  the  hill-top.  Roof  and  walls  have 
been  cut  away  and  treated  externally  in  paint  and 
relief.  This  monster  monolith,  reaching  a  height  of 
over  one  hundred  feet,  stands  in  a  court  about  three 
hundred  feet  long  and  half  as  broad.  A  rock  wall 
one  hundred  feet  high,  embellished  with  gods  of  titanic 
proportions  in  high  relief,  masks  the  front  of  the 
temple.  Passing  through  an  entrance  in  this  screen, 
which  is  thick  enough  to  contain  chambers,  one  is 
confronted  by  a  fine  sculpture  of  Lakshmi — the  God- 
dess of  Luck.  Two  enormous  elephants  guard  the 
entrance.     The  galleried  hall  is  covered  with  figures 


Cave  Temples— EUora 


RAUZA.  191 

in  high  relief,  and  in  the  uncertain  light  the  grotesque 
and  contorted  forms  of  strange  deities,  with  eyes  of 
jade  or  chunam,  seem  instinct  with  repulsive  life. 

From  the  summit  of  the  plateau  one's  gaze  is 
turned  instinctively  toward  the  pleasant  little  village 
of  Eauza,  reposing  within  its  ancient  walls  two  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea.  A  confused  group  of  white 
buildings  dominated  by  a  dome  marks  the  resting- 
place  of  an  illustrious  company.  Chief  of  these  in 
life,  though  least  conspicuous  in  his  place  of  last 
abode,  the  Emperor  Auraugzeb  lies  under  the  spread- 
ing branches  of  a  sweet  bukiili,  overshadowed  by  a 
mosque.  His  uncovered  grave  beneath  the  vault 
of  heaven  fills  a  modest  plot  in  the  angle  of  a  wall. 
It  is  such  a  grave  as  might  have  been  purchased  with 
the  proceeds  of  the  caps  which  the  Great  Mughal 
himself  made  and  sold  for  the  purpose  of  defraying 
the  expenses  of  his  burial.  Azim,  the  son  who  was 
with  him  in  his  last  moments,  is  laid  away  near  by. 
]\Iore  pretentious  than  these  is  the  tomb  of  Asof  Jah, 
the  founder  of  the  royal  house  of  Haidarabad ;  and 
here  also  the  last  of  the  Shahi  kings  of  Golconda 
found  a  final  resting-place  after  thirteen  years  of 
dreary  imprisonment  on  the  dark,  fort-crowned  cone 
of  Daulatabiid,  which  breaks  the  sky  line  of  the 
distant  hori/on. 

It  is  not,  however,  as  tlie  l)nrial-place  of  kings 
that  Rauza  is  held  sacred  l)y  the  devoted  Muham- 
madan,  but  because  of  the  shrines  of  the  Sayids,  its 


1 02  INDIA. 

Siicred  relics  and  its  legends  of  miracles ;  for  here 
is  treasured  the  imperishable  robe  of  the  Prophet, 
which  on  a  certain  day  of  each  year  is  submitted  to 
the  gaze  of  awe-struck  pilgrims ;  and  here  are  some 
hairs  from  Muhammad's  beard,  which  grow  and 
multiply  with  time,  and  Avill,  so  long  as  hair  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Deccan.  More  wonderful  than  these 
was  the  shrub  which  shot  up  from  the  grave  of  Sayid 
Hazrah  Burhana-din  and  bore  a  daily  crop  of  solid 
silver  buds  until  the  shrine  received  a  suitable  endow- 
ment. Lest  you  should  doubt,  the  guardians  of  the 
place  show  you  particles  of  silver  upon  the  pavement 
at  this  day. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  what  Karbela  is  to  the  Shiahs 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  Rauza  is  to  their  co-religionists  of 
the  Deccan. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

MADRAS,    TRIVALUR,    MAHABALIPUR,    CONJEVERAM, 
TRICHONOPOLI,    ARGOT. 

There   are   no   more   inhospitable    shores   in  the 
world    than    those   of    the    Coromandel    coast.      Its 
entire    length    does    not    present    a   single    inviting 
harbor.      Money  and  ingenuity  have  been  expended 
without  stint  to  produce  a  safe  anchorage  at  Madi-as, 
and,  after  all,  ships  lying  there  must  needs  put  out  to 
sea  upon  the  approach  of  a  cyclone,  or  risk  the  fate 
of  the  many  which  have  gone  down  within  sight  of 
the    city.      Such    was    the    fete    which    overtook    the 
French  fleet  in  October,  1746,  scarce  a  month  after 
Fort  St.  George  had  capitulated  to  it.     Early  in  the 
nineteenth    century   a    terrific   hurricane  occurred,  in 
which  two  men-of-war  and  nearly  a  hundred  smaller 
vessels  were  lost.     In  1881  another  cyclone  shattered 
about  one-third  of  the  breakwater,  then  almost  com- 
pleted after  six  years'  work.      Considering  the  nature 
of  its    coast — a   straight    line  of  sand  extending    for 
miles    under    the    sea,   with    very  gradual    descent — 
Madras  has  now  a  good  roadstead,  but  it  is  almost 
a  mLsnom(!r  to  call  it  a  harbor. 
Vol.  I— 13  193 


194  INDIA. 

The  city  was  for  many  years  a  bone  of  contention 
between  the  French  and  English,  though  the  wonder 
is,  first  that  a  town  was  ever  built  here,  and  next  that 
it  has  survived  and  flourished  under  such  generally 
unfavorable  conditions.  When  the  British,  in  1639, 
bought  from  the  Chandragiri  raja  the  six-mile  strip 
of  barren  sand  upon  Mhich  their  first  Indian  settle- 
ment was  made,  it  must  have  been  with  grim  satisfac- 
tion that  he  pocketed  the  purchase-money,  for  a  less 
advantageous  site  could  hardly  be  conceived.  It  had 
no  inland  water  communication,  and,  as  has  been  said, 
the  approach  by  sea  is  both  difficult  and  dangerous. 
Even  in  fair  weather  a  surf  breaks  upon  the  siiore, 
which  is  only  passable  by  the  flat-bottomed,  nailless 
musalah  boat  and  the  non-capsizable  catamaran. 

Despite  these  drawbacks,  British  pluck  and  enter- 
prise has  built  up  a  city  of  half  a  million  inhabitants, 
with  inland  and  ocean  trade  only  exceeded  by  Bombay 
and  Calcutta. 

Madras  is  a  straggling  town ;  its  houses  set  far 
apart,  with  little  attempt  at  order,  giving  the  im- 
pression that  the  amount  of  ground  occupied  is  a 
matter  of  no  consequence,  and,  indeed,  such  is  the 
case.  Private  individuals,  and  more  particularly  the 
Government,  have  done  much  towards  improving  the 
appearance  of  the  city  and  suburbs,  and  enhancing 
the  comfort  of  their  inhabitants,  by  planting  trees  and 
laying  out  gardens,  so  that  the  bald  patch  of  sand  on 
which  the  early  trading-post  was  established  has  un- 


MADRAS.  195 

dergone  a  complete  change  of  aspect.  One  may 
drive  along  the  Marina,  or  one  of  the  several  fine 
macadamized  roads  running  into  the  suburbs,  between 
continuous  lines  of  trees,  wliose  branches  often  meet 
overhead,  forming  green  and  shady  archways  that 
remind  one  somewhat  of  an   English  country  lane. 

Black  Town  abuts  on  the  harbor,  and  is  occupied 
mainly  by  Hindus,  the  Muhamraadan  quarter  being 
south  of  the  Fort,  and  beyond  this  again,  in  the  same 
direction,  the  suburb  of  St.  Thome,  the  scene  of  the 
martyrdom  of  the  Apostle  Thomas. 

The  Arsenal  within  Fort  St.  George  has  a  museum 
containing  many  interesting  relics.  There  are  colors 
captured  from  Dutch  and  French,  and  a  gun  taken 
from  Jaswant  Rao ;  there  are  the  keys  of  Pondicherri, 
and  a  cage  in  which  a  British  officer  was  confined  by 
the  Chinese  for  many  months.  The  j)lace  is  rich  in 
curious  old  weapons  and  projectiles. 

Government  House  contains  a  fine  collection  of 
historical  portraits,  one  at  least  by  Lawrence.  That 
of  Clive,  who  began  his  career  here  as  a  Ma-itor  in  the 
employ  of  the  East  India  Company,  is  said  to  be  the 
best  likeness  of  him  in  existence.  There  is  the  same 
touch  of  the  mystic  and  the  fatalist  which  one  sees  in 
the  face  of  "Chinese"  Gordon,  a  something  which 
seems  to  explain  the  great  achievements  and  the  self- 
destruction. 

From  the  old  lighthouse,  whose  office  has  been 
usurped  by  a  tower,  with   more  modern    appliances, 


]  <)G  INDIA. 

upon  one  of  the  i)ublic  buildings,  one  has  an  extensive 
view  of  the  city  and  the  surrounding  suburbs  and 
viHages  which  lie  within  its  boundaries,  embracing 
twenty-seven  square  miles. 

From  this  elevation  the  city  presents  a  green  and 
cheerful  aspect,  the  houses  of  the  Europeans  in 
particular  standing  in  well-ordered  grounds,  stocked 
with  shade  trees.  The  jx>lished  chunam  covering 
upon  the  yellow  walls  of  the  buildings  gives  the 
appearance  of  marble.  The  hundred  and  more  acres 
of  the  People's  Park,  with  its  tanks,  zoological  garden 
and  tennis  courts,  is  a  noticeable  feature  of  the  land- 
scape, which  is  intersected  by  the  several  canals  that 
terminate  at  the  city.  The  Marina,  the  resort  of 
fashion  m  the  evening,  skirts  the  shore,  running 
southward  from  the  Fort  past  many  of  the  principal 
buildings.  The  spires  of  man}'^  churches  rise  from 
the  comparatively  open  spaces  in  front,  while  from 
the  crowded  Hindu  toAvn  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
Moslem  quarters  on  the  other,  pinnacles  of  temples 
and  mosques  protrude  from  the  shapeless  mass  of 
buildings.  A  five-mile  drive  along  the  fine  Mount 
Road,  skirting  the  great  tank  towards  the  end  of  the 
journey,  will  bring  you  to  Little  Mount.  The 
mounts — there  are  three  of  them — are  all  connected 
with  legends  of  St.  Thomas.  If  Christians  w^ere 
inil)ued  with  the  religious  enthusiasm  of  the  INIuham- 
madau,  this  place  would  attract  pilgrims  from  every 
part  of  India. 


MADRAS.  197 

On  the  summit  of  Little  Mount  is  a  very  old 
ehurcli,  how  old  no  one  knows,  but  one  portion  of  it 
consists  of  a  cell  which  the  apostle  occupied.  On 
the  rocks  outside  they  will  show  you  spots  worn  by 
his  knees,  and  near  by  a  little  spring  which,  like 
Moses  of  old,  he  caused  to  jut  from  the  dry  rock.  In 
the  church  is  a  portrait  of  the  saint,  with  an  old 
inscription  in  Portuguese. 

The  scene  of  his  martyrdom  was  Mihilapur,  where 
stands  the  modern  village  of  St.  Thome,  two  or  three 
miles  to  the  eastward,  beyond  the  Theosophist  settle- 
ment of  Adyar,  famous  as  the  headquarters  of  the 
Blavatski-Alcott  coterie. 

With  regard  to  the  martyrdom,  Bishop  Hebcr  sees 
"  no  good  reason  for  doubting  that  it  is  really  the 
place."  The  ministry  of  St.  Thomas  in  India  is 
thoroughly  authenticated.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicles,  by  St.  Jerome,  Bishop 
Dorotheus  and  other  ancient  writers. 

At  Cochin  and  some  neighboring  points  are  to 
be  found  the  Christian  sect  of  Nazarani,  the  earliest 
members  of  which  were  converted  by  St.  Thomas. 
At  different  times  during  the  first  ten  centuries  after 
Christ,  their  numbers  were  augmented  by  refugees 
from  Jerusalem,  Bagdad,  Nineveh  and  Syria.  They 
prospered  and  became  numerous,  and  for  a  period 
were  governed  by  a  king  of  their  own.  But  the 
advent  of  the  foreigners,  while  a  source  of  numerical 
strength,  destroyed  the  unity  of  the  church  by  giving 


1«)8  INDIA. 

rise  to  numerous  schisms  and  differences.  In  1053 
the  Syrian  faction  sent  to  Antioch  for  a  bishop,  in 
opposition  to  the  native  incumbent  of  the  See,  and 
frt)m  that  time  there  have  been  two  prelates  in  this 
interesting  religious  community.  At  present  there 
are  several  divisions  amongst  the  million  or  more  of 
their  numbers — Nestorians,  Syrian  Jacobites,  Roman 
Catholics,  and  other  denominations. 

Cochin  was  one  of  the  places  in  which  St.  Francis 
Xavier  preached  with  marked  success.  In  1577 
the  first  book  printed  in  India  was  produced  at 
Cochin. 

One  might  suppose  that  of  all  nationalities  and 
religions,  Jews  would  be  the  least  likely  to  find 
representation  among  the  natives  of  Southern  India ; 
but  Cochin  has  a  Jewish  colony  composed  of  both 
black  and  white  races,  who  live  in  the  same  quarter, 
though  in  separate  parts  of  it.  The  native  Jews  were 
a  recognized  political  commmiity  as  early  as  390  A.D., 
when  the  Rajd  of  Malabar  granted  to  them  Cranga- 
nore,  with  the  right  of  working  the  copper  mines. 
There  are  numerous  tribes  of  Hindu  Jews  to  be 
found  at  various  points  of  the  interior,  and  as  far 
north  as  Poona,  where  they  are  engaged  in  the  pro- 
duction of  oil. 

To  regress  to  the  Coromandel  coast :  Trivalur,  about 
twenty-five  miles  from  Madras,  has  a  remarkable 
Dravidian  temple.  Its  nucleus  was  a  pretty  village 
shrine,  which  by  some  happy  chance,  or  perhaps  on 


TRI  VALUE.  199 

account  of  extraordinary  holy  associations?,  carae  to 
be  a  place  of  unusual  sacred  importance.  The 
original  temple  dedicated  to  Siva  and  Kdli  occupies 
the  centre,  surrounded  by  a  cloistered  court  measuring 
one  himdred  and  ninety-two  feet  by  one  hundred  and 
fifty-six  feet,  its  front  wall  broken  by  a  gopura,  a 
conical  structure  of  stone  rising  in  sculptured  and 
columned  tiers  above  the  entrance.  At  a  later  period 
the  first  court  was  enclosed  by  another,  four  hundred 
and  seventy  feet  square,  with  gopuras,  larger  than 
the  former  one,  at  back  and  front.  This  enclosure 
contains  a  number  of  small  shrines  scattered  about  in 
disorderly  profusion.  Finally  the  whole  was  sur- 
rounded in  another  court  formed  by  a  wall  nine  hun- 
dred and  forty  feet  by  seven  hundred  and  one  feet, 
with  five  additional  gopuras  let  into  it  at  irregular 
intervals.  The  outermost  court  contains  several 
shrines  of  a  more  imposing  character  and  greater 
elaboration  of  design  than  any  in  the  interior  partition. 
The  process  of  addition  and  improvement  was  sud- 
denly arrested,  though  why  it  is  impossible  to  say, 
some  time  within  the  past  century,  after  work  had  been 
carried  about  half-way  upon  one  of  the  great  halls 
which  are  the  usual  complement  of  such  temples. 
These  halls  are  generally  supported  by  one  thousand 
columns.  At  Trivalur  less  than  three-fourths  of 
that  number  have  been  erected,  and  about  one-half 
stands  roofless. 

While  the  detail  in  this  temple  is  fine  and  laboriously 


200  INDIA. 

extensive,  the  design  is  extremely  bad  and  the  general 
view  disapj)ointing. 

A  favorite  excursion  with  the  Europeans  of  ^ladi-as 
is  to  ]\Iahabah'i)ur,  the  city  of  the  Great  Bali.  It  is 
a  twelve  hours'  journey  by  boat  through  the  Bucking- 
ham Canal.  The  raths  and  excavations  are  of  Bud- 
dliistic  origin,  dating  from  the  seventh  century — the 
beginning  of  the  decadent  period  of  Indian  Bud- 
dhism. Like  most  similar  remains,  they  have  been 
adopted  by  the  Brahmans,  but  without  material 
changes  in  their  architectural  features. 

The  five  raths  or  monolithic  temples  form  a  cluster 
upon  the  sandy  beach  to  the  south  of  the  village. 
The  Bhima  Ratha,  which  is  the  largest,  measures 
forty-eight  feet  in  length,  twenty-four  in  breadth,  and 
is  twenty-seven  feet  high.  The  upper  portion  is  fin- 
ished in  little  recesses,  made  to  resemble  the  entrances 
to  cells,  in  imitation  of  the  vihara.  Next  to  the 
Bhima  rath  is  another,  square  as  to  the  base,  and 
rising  in  four  pyramidal  stories,  which  culminate  in 
the  usual  Dravidian  dome. 

For  a  space  of  about  two  miles  in  either  direction 
from  the  shore,  the  ground  is  covered  with  temples, 
sculptured  rocks  and  colossal  monolithic  figures ; 
chiseled  representations  of  men  and  monkeys,  gods 
and  elephants;  the  boar  temple  and  the  tiger  cave. 
Here  a  chaitya  in  a  state  of  fair  preservation  ;  there 
a  huge  rock  carved  to  represent  the  forms  of  men 
and  animals  in  various  fantastic  attitudes.     Near  by 


MAHABALIPUR.  201 

an  excavation,  forty  feet  in  depth,  with  a  fagade,  pil- 
lared at  regular  intervals  along  a  greater  length,  the 
interior  covered  with  carvings  in  high  relief. 

Placed  like  an  eyrie  upon  the  point  of  a  difficult 
rock  is  a  little  shrine  from  the  doorway  of  which  you 
look  down  upon  the  Temple  of  Durga  immediately 
beneath.  The  large  Temple  of  Vishnu  is  shut  against 
visitors,  to  insure  the  privacy  of  the  worshipers  from 
the  neighboring  Brahman  village. 

But  perhaps  the  most  interesting  spot  in  this  aggre- 
gation of  architectural  religious  remains  is  the  Temple 
of  Siva,  whose  base  and  })illars  are  lapped  by  the 
commingling  waters  of  the  Sea  of  Bengal  and  the 
Indian  Ocean.  No  doubt  it  once  stood  inland ;  in- 
deed, the  natives,  pointing  to  an  unusually  heavy  line 
of  breakers  a  mile  or  more  out,  will  tell  you  that 
other  temples  lie  a  few  fathoms  beneath  the  surface 
at  the  spot,  and  that  you  might  see  them  plainly  if 
the  waters  would  be  still. 

A  granite  wall  once  enclosed  the  building,  but  all 
that  remains  of  it  are  heaps  of  shattered  stone  and 
the  heavy  gate-posts.  Within  the  walls  are  sculp- 
tured in  alto-relievo  presentments  of  Bali,  Siva,  Par- 
vati  and  Vishnu.  The  eastern  entrance  abuts  upon 
the  water,  and  its  threshold  is  but  a  few  feet  above 
it.  Immediately  in  front,  upon  a  rock  in  the  sea 
about  seventy-five  feet  distant,  is  a  "  lamp  pillar" 
which  formerly  bore  a  light,  perhaps  to  warn  the 
fisher  folk  of  the  adjacent  villages  from  reefs  which 


202  INDIA. 

lie  off  the  shore  at  this  point.  The  pillar  has  been 
broken  by  the  force  of  the  waves,  and  its  present 
height  of  eighteen  feet  is  about  half  of  its  original 
altitude.  Southey  refers  to  this  spot  in  his  "Curse 
of  Kehama,"  when  he  writes  of 

"  The  sepulchres 
Of  ancient  kings,  which  Bfili  in  his  power 
Made  in  primeval  times,  and  built  above  them 
A  city  like  the  cities  of  the  gods — 
Being  like  a  god  himself.     For  many  an  age 
Hath  Ocean  warred  against  his  palaces, 
Till  overwhelmed  beneath  the  waves — 
Not  overthrown — so  well  the  awful  chief 
Had  laid  their  deep  foundations. 
*  *  »  *  *  #  * 

Their  summits  in  the  noonday  light 

Shone  o'er  the  dark  green  deep  that  rolled  between; 

Her  domes  and  pinnacles  and  spires  were  seen 
Peering  above  the  sea,  a  mournful  sight, 

And  on  the  sandy  shore,  beside  the  verge 
Of  ocean,  here  and  there  a  rock-cut  fane 

Resisted,  in  its  strength,  the  surf  and  surge 
That  on  their  deep  foundations  beat  in  vain." 

The  temples  of  Southern  India  are  much  superior 
to  those  of  the  north,  at  least  in  the  matter  of  magni- 
tude. The  Karnatik  is  particularly  rich  in  these 
remains  of  the  ancient  art  of  the  Dravidians,  those 
people  who,  like  the  Aryans,  immigrated  from  Central 
Asia,  and  pushed  their  way  to  the  southern  end  of 
the  peninsula,  where  their  descendants  to-day  speak 
Tamil,  Telugu  and  Kanarese. 


CONJEVERAM.  203 

Conjevcram,  the  Benares  of  the  south,  is  one  of 
the  seven  holy  cities  of  India.  There  are  two  groups 
of  temples,  with  fine  gopuras  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty  to  two  himdred  feet  high.  The  Hall  of  a  Thou- 
sand Pillars  in  the  great  Ekambarah  Swanir  temple 
contains  a  number  of  carved  and  colored  wooden 
images,  which  are  carried  in  procession  during  the 
May  festival. 

The  Temple  of  Vishnu  is  the  pride  of  Conjeveram. 
It  is  entered  through  a  seven-storied  gopura.  The 
establishment  includes  a  great  many  nautch  girls,  who 
are  ready  and  anxious  to  perform  for  the  amusement 
of  the  visitor,  but  not  without  an  eye  to  their  own 
profit.  The  same  idea,  mingled  with  the  pride  of 
proprietorship,  induces  the  priests  to  produce  the 
jewels,  which,  if  they  be  genuine,  are  of  no  incon- 
siderable value.  There  are  head-pieces  of  gold,  with 
settings  of  precious  stones ;  gold  chains  by  the  bushel ; 
necklaces  of  various  kinds ;  fillets  and  frontlets  and 
foot  casings,  all  of  gold  and  all  enriched  with  gems. 
One  of  these  ornaments  the  guardians  claim  to  have 
been  given  to  the  temple  by  Lord  Clive.  On  one  of 
the  walls  is  a  innocent-looking  mark,  which,  however, 
has  an  important  significance.  It  is  the  initial  letter 
of  the  word  Vishnu,  which  has  been  the  subject  of 
grave  and  even  fierce  controversy  among  two  sects 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years.  One  party  repro- 
duces this  mark  upon  the  forehead  with  white  jiaiut, 
in  a  plain  stroke,  and  they  have  the  approval  of  the 


204  INDIA. 

priests  of  Conjeveram ;  the  otlicr  adds  a  little  curve 
Avhich  extends  part  way  down  the  nose.  The  wor- 
shiper ot'  Siva  is  distinguished  by  three  horizontal 
white  lines  upon  the  ibrehcad. 

Sir  Hector  Munro  cast  his  guns  and  impedimenta 
into  the  temj)le  tank  in  his  memorable  retreat  to 
Chingalpat,  after  the  crushing  defeat  by  Haidar  All. 

From  miles  distant  in  any  direction  one  sees  the 
famous  battlemented  rock  of  Trichonopoli,  rising 
sheer  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  out  of  the  plain,  with 
the  town  huddled  about  its  base.  Upon  the  south  side 
a  covered  way  leads  by  steep  steps  to  the  temple  upon 
the  summit,  with  its  huge  silver  Nandi  Bull. 

This  elevation  commands  a  magnificent  view  of  the 
surrounding  country  for  many  miles.  To  the  north, 
the  shallow  Cauvery  encirclas  the  island  of  Seringham, 
whose  thickly  wooded  shores  encompass  the  enormous 
Temple  of  Vishnu,  seven  miles  in  circumference.  Its 
towering  gopuras  top  the  intervening  trees,  but  other- 
wise the  temple  buildings  are  not  discernible.  On 
the  east,  north  and  west  the  dead  level  of  plain  ter- 
minates in  hills  reaching  in  some  places  an  altitude 
of  four  thousand  feet. 

In  the  town  they  Mill  point  out  to  you  the  house  in 
which  Clive  lived,  and  show  you  a  tablet  marking  the 
spot  where  Bishop  Heber  died  while  using  the  bath 
of  the  Judges'  Court. 

The  hills  which  curtail  the  western  horizon  form  a 
spur  of  the  Neilgherris,  among  whose  higher  elevations 


Rock  of    Trrchinopoli 


ARCOT.  205 

He  the  sanatariuras  of  Kiinili-,  Wellington  and  Utaka- 
mand,  the  last  one  of  the  "death  traps,"  so  called 
by  ignorant  agitators,  in  which  Boer  prisoners  were 
recently  encamped. 

Of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  the  Neilgberris  the 
Tildas,  who  number  but  a  few  hundred,  are  interesting 
on  many  accounts.  They  are  tall,  handsome  men  of 
splendid  physique,  with  large  round  eyes,  regular 
features  and  Roman  noses.  Their  uncovered  heads 
are  thickly  laid  with  long  ringlets.  They  are  a 
brave,  honest  community  of  herdsmen,  whose  religion 
is  theistic  and  non-idolatrous.  They  practice  poly- 
andry, and  are  fast  becoming  extinct. 

Historic  Arcot,  the  "six  forests"  of  the  six  holy 
hermits,  is  hardly  a  factor  in  the  modern  economy  of 
the  Indian  Empire,  but  it  occupies  a  prominent  posi- 
tion in  the  annals  of  the  country.  Its  blasted  walls 
and  shattered  gateways  are  eloquent  witnesses  of  the 
stress  of  war.  Hindu  and  Mughal,  Frenchman  and 
Briton  have  struggled  for  possession  of  it.  Adondai, 
Ziilfakar,  Haidar  and  Lally  are  names  intimately 
connected  with  it,  but,  so  long  as  deeds  of  daring  stir 
men's  pulses,  Arcot  will  be  best  remembered  for 
dive's  gallant  capture  and  defence  of  it.  Within 
defective  fortifications,  easily  approachable  from 
several  points,  the  meagre  garrison  of  two  hundred 
sepoys  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  British  troops 
withstood  a  native  army  exceeding  five  thousand, 
and  su])ported   by    one    hundred    and    fifty    French- 


20(3  INDIA. 

inon.     Maoaulay  recites  the  story  in  impressive  lan- 
guage : 

"  During  fifty  days  tlic  siege  \vent  on.  During  fifty 
davs  the  young  captain  maintained  the  defence  with 
a  firmness,  vigilance  and  ability  which  would  have 
done  honor  to  the  oldest  marshal  in  Europe.  The 
breach,  however,  increased  day  by  day.  The  garrison 
began  to  feel  tlie  pressure  of  hunger.  Under  such 
circumstances  any  troops,  so  scantily  provided  with 
officers,  might  have  been  expected  to  show  signs  of 
insubordination  ;  and  the  danger  was  peculiarly  great 
in  a  force  composed  of  men  differing  widely  from 
each  other  in  extraction,  color,  language,  manners  and 
religion.  But  the  devotion  of  the  little  band  to  its 
chief  surpassed  anything  that  is  related  of  the  Tenth 
Legion  of  Ca?sar,  or  the  Old  Guard  of  Xapoleon. 
The  sepoys  came  to  Olive,  not  to  complain  of  their 
scanty  fare,  but  to  propose  that  all  the  grain  should 
be  given  to  the  Europeans,  who  required  more  nour- 
ishment than  the  natives  of  Asia.  The  thin  gruel, 
they  said,  which  was  strained  away  from  the  rice, 
would  suffice  for  themselves.  History  contains  no 
more  touching  instance  of  military  fidelity,  or  of  the 
influence  of  a  commanding  mind." 

At  last,  on  the  great  day  of  the  Muharram,  the 
besiegers  made  an  attack  in  full  force,  and  the  fam- 
ished and  well  nigh  exhausted  defenders  made  a 
supreme  call  upon  their  fainting  energies  to  meet  the 
onslaught.       An    hour   of    terrific    fighting    ensued. 


Entrance  to  the  Palace — Madura 


MADURA.  207 

Each  successive  advance  was  repelled  in  band-to- 
hand  encounter.  At  length  superior  numbers  gave 
way  before  indomitable  determination.  The  attackers 
broke  into  disorderly  retreat,  abandoning  their  camp 
and  guns  to  the  garrison. 

Centuries  before  the  Muhammadans  invaded  India 
Madura  was  the  capital  of  a  large  and  powerful  king- 
dom, and  the  centre  of  the  learning  and  religion  of 
the  southern  peninsula.  Of  the  princes  who  have 
ruled  here  in  the  past  none  has  left  a  name  so  famous 
as  that  of  Tirumala  Kajiik,  whose  brilliant  reign  of 
thirty-six  years  occurred  in  the  first  half  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  He  was  the  Shah  Jahan  of  the 
Karnatik — the  master-builder  of  Southern  India.  The 
magnificent  structures  which  originated  with  him  are 
everywhere  in  evidence. 

His  palace  has  been  "  restored,"  and  now  has  some- 
thing of  a  modern  aspect,  due  to  the  application  of 
white  and  yellow  plaster  to  its  native  granite.  What 
has  been  lost  in  artistic  effect  is  made  up  for  in  fitness, 
for  the  building  has  been  given  up  to  official  pursuits. 
Its  Bplcnilid  apartments  are  now  occu})icd  by  the 
offices  of  magistrates  and  collectors,  and  even  the 
Tamkam  near  1)y,  the  scene  of  many  a  stirring  gladia- 
torial ('oniiucst  in  days  gone  ])y,  has  been  converted 
into  a  residence. 

The  palace  is  entered  through  a  fine  granite  portic^o, 
built  in  honor  of  Lord  Napier,  to  whom  the  place 
owes    its    salvation   from    decay.     A    stone    stairway 


208  INDIA. 

li'ads  lliroiiu,]!  a  hvoad  pillared  and  arched  corridor, 
iNIoorish  in  its  outlines,  to  u  court  under  a  great  dome. 
Tlii.s  M'as  the  audience  hall  or  throne  room.  It  is 
seventy  feet  high  and  sixty  feet  in  diameter.  It  has 
the  ever-present  gallery,  from  which  the  women  of  the 
zenana,  themselves  concealed,  could  sit  and  watch  the 
scene  below.  A  smaller  but  similar  chamber,  adjoin- 
ing, is  now  used  by  the  collector  as  a  treasury. 

A  fanciful  legend  is  connected  with  Tirumala's  bed- 
room, an  apartment  over  fifty  feet  high.  The  ceiling 
has  four  holes  in  it  at  regular  distances  apart,  and 
there  is  a  large  ragged  open  hole  in  tiic  roof.  They 
say  that  the  king's  bed  was  suspended  from  hooks  in 
the  first,  and  that  a  thief  entered  ;  /  the  large  aper- 
ture and  succeeded  in  getting  away  with  the  crown 
jewels.  Tirumala  offered  to  grant  an  hereditary 
estate  to  the  unknown  robber  if  he  would  return  the 
jewels.  The  promised  reward  had  the  desired  effect, 
and,  upon  receiving  his  property  again,  Tirumala  con- 
ferred the  land  upon  the  thief;  but,  lest  there  should 
be  any  mistake  about  the  hereditary  character  of  the 
gift,  ordered  him  to  be  immediately  decapitated. 

xVt  least  the  finest  portions  of  the  great  Temple  of 
Madura  were  erected  by  Tirumala.  The  enclosure  is 
in  excess  of  eight  hundred  feet  one  way  and  seven 
hundred  the  other.  It  has  nine  gopuras,  one  of  them 
rising  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  In 
Lakshmi's  Hall,  the  roof  of  Avhich  is  supported  by 
eight  statues  of  the  genial  goddess,  stall-keepers  dis- 


Detail  of  the  Temple — Madura 


MADURA.  209 

play  tlicir  wares,  aiid  vendors  of  flowers  find  cus- 
tomers among  the  many  pilgrims  and  worshipers. 
Everywhere  are  statues  and  carvings  in  various  relief. 
Here  Siva  is  dancing,  and  there  he  is  engaged  in 
spearing  a  dragon.  His  son,  Karttikeya,  the  Mars 
of  Hindu  mythology,  divides  attention  with  Ganesha, 
the  god  of  M'isdom.  Elephants,  peacocks,  lions 
and  other  animals,  in  faithful  or  distorted  forms, 
abound.  The  Tank  of  the  Golden  Lilies  is  associated 
with  Queen  Manganimal,  who  built  a  tasteful  little 
alcove  here.  This  unfortunate  women  incurred  the 
ill  will  of  her  subjects  by  her  infatuation  for  a  Brah- 
man priest.  The  man  was  probably  placed  beyond 
their  reach  by  his  caste  and  occupation,  but  they 
vented  their  rage  upon  his  paramour  by  jiutting  her 
to  a  horrible  death  of  slow  starvation  in  constant 
sight  of  food.  A  statue  of  the  Brahman  stands  be- 
side the  tank,  and  upon  the  ceiling  of  the  arcade 
which  surrounds  it  are  portraits  of  both  the  lovers. 
A  very  striking  eifect  is  produced  by  twelve  pillars, 
in  the  forms  of  grotes(pie  animals,  the  intervening 
spaces  being  occupied  by  statues  of  the  five  Pandava 
Ijrothers.  Yudishthira,  the  unlucky  gambler,  is  upon 
the  right,  and  opposite  to  him  Arjuna,  witli  the  miglity 
bow  which  won  Draujiadi  iu  the  Swayamvara.  Bhiiiia 
is  depicted  with  tlic  famous  chib  tluit  cruslicd  the  skull 
of  Duhsasana  and  broke  the  knee  of  Duryodhana. 

The  Temple  of  the  Rishls,  or  holy  men,  contains  a 
numerous  aggregation  of  statues  of  Hindu  saints  and 
Vol.  I.— 14 


210  INDIA. 

deities.  It  is  also  the  repositoiy  of  the  jewels  and 
vahanas  of  Miuakshi,  the  "  fish-eyed  goddess,"  aud 
Suudareslnvar  (under  which  name  Siva  is  here  wor- 
shiped), who  are  the  co-dedieatees  of  the  pagoda  of 
Madura. 

The  magnificent  choultrie,  which  has  been  so  often 
described,  was  built  by  Tirumala  in  honor  of  the 
tutelary  deity,  who  is  said  to  have  paid  him  a  visit  of 
ten  days'  duration  each  year.  This  gallery  has  rows 
of  sculptured  columns,  whose  capitals  (starting  at 
about  two- thirds  of  the  elevation)  and  cornices  follow 
arch-like  converging  lines  until  they  meet  the  narrow, 
flat  roof,  giving  the  ciFcct  of  a  long  archway  with 
depressed  apex.  On  eitlier  side  of  the  central  corri- 
dor are  five  pillar-statues,  representing  difierent 
members  of 'the  Xajak  dynasty.  Tirumala  is  distin- 
guished by  the  addition  of  a  canojw  and  the  presence 
of  two  attendants  at  his  back.  On  his  left  hand 
stands  his  consort,  the  Tanjore  princess. 

The  Temple  of  Madura  is  one  of  the  finest  and 
oldest  specimens  of  Dravidian  architecture  in  exist- 
ence. It  is  a  tj'pe  of  the  general  plan  which  was 
followed  by  these  people  in  all  their  pagoda  temples. 
They  vary  in  arrangement,  but  usually  consist  of  the 
following  parts  : 

1.  The  Vimana,  or  Adytum.  This  is  the  central 
point  of  the  whole,  and  the  "  holy  of  holies."  It  is 
square,  and  surmounted  by  a  pyramidal  roof,  overlaid 
with  gold.     In  a   dark,  cell-like   chamber   the   altar 


MADURA.  211 

and   idol   are   placed,  and   a   lamp   kept   constantly 
burning. 

2.  On  each  side  of  the  Vimana,  usually  in  direc- 
tions corresponding  Avith  the  cardinal  points  of  the 
compass,  are  the  Mautapas,  huge  stone  porches,  pro- 
fusely ornamented  with  sculpture. 

3.  The  Gopuras,  or  gateway  buildings.  They  are 
pyramidal  in  form,  and  rise  in  diminishing  tiers,  of 
from  seven  to  fourteen  stories,  to  a  height  frequently 
exceeding  two  hundred  feet.  They  invariably  termi- 
nate in  a  flattish,  oblong  dome.  The  exterior  is  a 
conglomerate  mass  of  grotesque  figures  upon  a  succes- 
sion of  pillared  platforms. 

4.  The  Choultries,  or  colonnades.  The  conventional 
number  of  pillars  is  one  thousand,  but  frequently  they 
fall  short  of  the  full  count.  The  columns  are  ehibor- 
ately  carved  from  base  to  capital,  and  take  diverse 
forms,  supporting  a  flat  roof  at  an  elevation  of  from 
twelve  to  twenty  feet. 

6.  The  Sacred  Tanks,  surrounded  by  artistic  arcades, 
and  having  steps  leading  down  to  the  water.  • 

6.  The  Enclosing  "Wall,  which  has  no  gates  nor 
entrances  save  through  the  gopuras. 

In  addition  to  these  regular  features,  the  confines 
of  a  large  pagoda  will  include  temples,  shrines, 
isolated  scul])tures  of  different  kinds,  stables  for 
elepliants,  stalls  for  sacred  bulls,  domiciles  for  priests 
and  attendants,  and  various  other  buildings.  In  fact, 
when  the  gates  of  one  of  these  scattering  temples  is 


212  INDIA. 

closetl  oil  the  world  at  niglit,  its  walls  retain  a  teeming 
village  of  active  human  beings  and  animals. 

Tanjore  is  situated  on  the  inland  side  of  the  delta 
of  the  Cauvery,  an  expanse  of  country  unsurpassed 
in  Southern  India  for  fertility.  It  is  an  ancient  city, 
and  has  been  a  place  of  importance  from  the  earliest 
times.  It  was  captured  by  a  brother  of  Sivaji,  who 
made  it  the  capital  of  an  independent  Maratha  king- 
dom and  established  a  dynasty  which  survived  to  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Conspicuous  from  every  point  of  the  city  are  the 
domes  of  the  Great  Pagoda,  whose  vimana  reaches 
an  altitude  of  two  hundred  feet.  The  temple  enclosure 
contains  the  famous  Great  Bull  of  Tanjore.  The 
animal  is  cut  from  a  single  block  of  black  granite.  In 
its  recumbent  position  the  figure  measures  nearly  thir- 
teen feet  in  height. 

The  palace  within  the  Fort  has  in  its  library 'a 
unique  collection  of  Sanskrit  manuscripts,  eighteen 
thousand  in  number,  about  one-half  being  inscriptions 
upon  palm  leaves. 

This  district  was  the  scene  of  the  earliest  labors  of 
Protestant  missionaries  in  India.  The  first  of  these, 
Ziegenbalg,  made  his  way  into  Tanjore  disguised  as  a 
native.  He  encountered  serious  opposition  at  first, 
but  eventually  secured  the  consent  of  the  rdja  to  his 
mission.  After  effecting  many  conversions  and  trans- 
lating the  New  Testament  into  the  Tamil  language, 
Ziegenbalg  died,  in  1719,  and  was  followed  by  able 


Sacred   Bull — Tanjore 


CHIDAMBARAM.  213 

successors.  The  best  remembered  of  these  is  tlie 
soldier  priest  Schwartz,  who  in  the  time  of  Clive  was 
the  chief  adviser  of  the  raja,  and  after  his  decease 
the  guardian  of  his  sou.  Schwartz  spent  forty-eight 
years  among  the  people  here,  and  died  in  1798, 
mourned  by  the  whole  kingdom.  His  cliurch  by  the 
Sivaganga  Tank  contains  a  fine  marble  group  by 
Flaxman,  depicting  the  aged  missionary  upon  his 
death-bed  ;  on  one  side  his  ward  and  pupil.  Raja, 
Sharfoji ;  on  the  other  his  colleague,  Kohlner.  The 
English  Church,  in  the  adjacent  People's  Park, 
contains  a  handsome  memorial  tablet  to  Schwartz, 
and  the  churchyard  holds  the  grave  of  Lord 
Hastings. 

Chidambaram  can  boast  the  oldest  pagodas  in  the 
south  of  India.  The  Temple  of  Siva  owes  its  origin, 
or  at  least  considerable  embellishment,  to  the  leprous 
Emperor  Swetha-varna,  the  "  white  colored,"  who 
came  here  from  the  north  on  a  pilgrimage,  and  was 
miraculously  cured  of  his  affliction  by  bathing  in  the 
tank,  upon  the  southern  side  of  which  the  temple 
stands.  The  tank,  which  Is  one  hundred  yards  long, 
is  the  central  point  of  a  walled  enclosure,  measuring 
eighteen  hundred  feet  by  fifteen  hundred.  It  contains 
the  usual  "Hall  of  a  Thousand  Pillars,"  which  in  this 
instance  falls  short  of  that  number  by  six. 

The  granite  Temple  of  Parvati,  with  its  central 
aisle  twenty-three  feet  in  breadth,  lias  a  beautiful 
porch,  with  elegantly  carved  pillars. 


214  INDIA. 

Tlie  shrine  in  the  Temple  of  Siva,  dedicated  to 
Verma,  the  god  of  dancing,  is  decorated  with  many 
exquisite  carvings.  Fcrgusson  considers  this  shrine 
to  be  the  oldest  thing  now  existing  in  the  place. 

Some  five  or  six  widely  scattered  little  spots  upon 
the  map  of  India  indicate  the  French  possessions  at 
the  present  day.  Their  total  extent  is  one  hundred 
and  seventy-eight  square  miles,  occupied  by  a  popula- 
tion of  less  than  three  hundred  thousand.  Pondicherri 
is  the  centre  of  government,  and  the  seat  of  the  High 
Court. 

Near  the  pier  is  a  statue  of  Dupleix,  ujion  a 
rough  and  migainly  pedestal,  formed  of  fragments  of 
temples  brought  from  Gingi.  This  is  the  promenade 
where  Pondicherri's  rank  and  fashion  gather  towards 
sunset,  in  rolling-chairs,  to  listen  to  martial  music  and 
take  the  breeze.  The  city  has  some  handsome  build- 
ings— notably  Government  House  and  the  High 
Court — several  churches,  and  a  good  native  school. 

The  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  have  been  very 
successful  with  the  Hindu  population,  probably 
because  they  meet  them  half-way  in  the  matter  of 
ceremonial  and  caste.  The  priests,  with  practical 
foresight,  have  assumed  the  character  of  a  superior 
caste  of  Briihmans  from  the  Western  hemisphere,  and, 
after  all,  the  assumption  is  not  without  some  basis  of 
fact.  In  former  times  they  adopted  the  orange  gown 
of  the  most  holy  ascetic,  and  carried  the  sacred  spot 
upon  the  forehead. 


PONDICHERRI.  215 

Pondicherri  has  frequently  changed  hands  between 
French  and  English.  In  one  of  the  many  sieges, 
when  Eyre  Coote  beset  the  town  and  the  ill-fated 
Lally  defended  it,  a  strange  incident  occurred.  The 
garrison,  becoming  short  of  provisions,  expelled  the 
native  inhabitants  to  the  number  of  fourteen  hundred. 
They  were  driven  back  by  the  English,  but  refused 
re-entrance  by  the  French.  So,  for  eight  days,  these 
poor  wretches  wandered  back  and  forth  between  the 
walls  of  the  city,  and  the  lines  of  the  besiegers,  shelter- 
less, and  subsisting  upon  roots  and  grass.  At  length 
the  British,  finding  their  enemies  inexorable  in  their 
determination  to  exclude  the  unfortunate  natives,  gave 
them  asylum. 


CHAPTER  Xlir. 


CALCUTTA. 


There  arc  few,  if  any,  rivers  more  difficult  to 
navigate  than  the  tributary  of  the  Ganges  upon  which 
Calcutta  stands,  about  ninety  miles  from  the  sea.  The 
Hilgli  is  subject  to  a  variety  of  natural  phenomena 
which  make  it  the  dread  of  ship-owners  and  masters. 
When  it  is  swept  by  one  of  the  terrific  cyclones  which 
visit  this  coast,  loss  of  life  and  destruction  of 
property  almost  invariably  result.  Another  menace 
to  shipping  is  the  Hilgli  bore,  a  tidal  wave  of  from 
eight  to  thirty  feet  in  height,  which  rushes  up  the 
river  in  a  solid  wall  of  water  at  the  rate  of  eighteen  or 
twenty  miles  an  hour,  carrying  the  smaller  craft  with 
it  like  straws  before  the  wind,  and  sometimes  tearing 
large  vessels  from  their  anchorage.  The  writer 
remembers  an  ocean-going  ship  to  have  been  thus 
lifted  out  of  the  channel  and  left  high  and  dry,  and 
by  a  strange  chance  upon  an  even  keel,  in  the  Eden 
Gardens.  It  was  necessary  to  dig  a  canal  in  order  to 
launch  it  again.  But  these  are  only  occasional  perils, 
not  to  be  compared  in  gravity  with  the  constant  diffi- 
culties and  dangers  of  the  ever-shifting  shoals  and 

216 


CALCUTTA.  217 

quicksands  which  abound  in  the  bed  of  the  Hugli. 
No  degree  of  familiarity  with  the  river,  short  of  daily 
experience,  will  suffice  for  safe  navigation.  A  faithful 
chart  of  to-day's  bottom  will  not  be  a  guide  for  to- 
morrow's venture. 

The  banks  are  lined  with  signal  stations  Avhich 
repeat  the  latest  soundings,  and  each  pilot  reports  his 
findings  in  detail  after  taking  a  vessel  to  or  from 
Calcutta.  The  "  Royal  James  and  Mary,"  forerunner 
of  a  long  line  of  similarly  unfortunate  merchantnion, 
gave  her  name  to  the  most  dangerous  spot  in  this  most 
dangerous  waterway,  where  she  went  down  in  1694. 
Since  that  time  the  "  James  and  Mary "  has  never 
been  devoid  of  warning  masts,  marking  the  sites  of 
submerged  wrecks.  Through  these  treacherous  waters, 
with  their  never  resting  bottom,  the  safety  of  the 
traveler  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Hugli  pilot — a  gentle- 
man of  no  small  importance  and  of  considerable  attain- 
ments ;  better  paid  than  any  other  of  his  class  in  the 
world,  and  occupying  a  higher  social  position,  A 
dinghi  brings  him  on  board  at  Calcutta,  or  at  the 
sand-heads,  as  smart  as  a  P.  and  O.  captain,  his  man- 
servant and  ])()rtmanteau  in  his  wake.  He  comes 
over  the  side  in  white  kid  gloves  and  patent  leather 
pumps,  and  from  the  moment  his  foot  touches  the 
deck  he  is  treated  with  the  utmost  deference  by  all  on 
board.  A  great  man  indeed  is  the  Iliigli  ])ilot  until 
he  makes  a  serious  mistake,  and  then — well,  he  may 
have  saved  money,  and  have  sufficient  sense  to  turn  it 


218  INDIA. 

to  good  account,  but  if"  not,  tlie  final  chapters  of  his 
story  are  painful  reading. 

In  the  early  80's  one  Scott  was  the  dandiest,  the 
most  debonnair,  but  the  craftiest  of  the  profession. 
lie  knew  every  least  feature  of  the  landscape  along 
the  route,  every  mango  tope  and  every  riverside  tem- 
])le,  as  he  knew  the  Chandni  Chauk  or  Chowringhi^ 
and  keeping  a  keen  eye  to  either  side,  as  the  ship 
steamed  slowly  up  the  stream,  he  learnt  by  these  land- 
marks and  his  soundings  the  stealthy  shiftings  of  the 
quicksands,  and  carried  to  Calcutta  the  story  which 
would  guide  the  man  who  took  the  next  boat  down 
to  the  sea. 

As  the  vessel  approaches  Calcutta,  Garden  Reach, 
with  the  King  of  Oudh's  palace,  is  passed  on  the  right 
hand  at  about  six  miles  distance,  and  the  fomous 
Botanical  Gardens,  covering  two  hundred  and  seventy 
^cres,  upon  the  left.  Fort  William,  on  the  bank  of  the 
river,  and  the  city  are  now  within  plain  view.  The 
former  is  surrounded  by  open  ground  for  a  distance 
of  a  mile  at  least,  except  where  it  faces  upon  the 
river.  After  the  trouble  with  Siraj-ud-Daula,  the 
old  fort,  which  occupied  a  position  now  marked  by 
the  Post  Office,  was  abandoned  and  the  present  one 
erected.  In  1682  the  English  had  but  four  or  five 
trading  posts  in  Bengal.  Hugli  was  the  most  imj)ort- 
ant,  and  the  residence  of  the  Governor,  William 
Hedges,  who  was  furnished  with  "a  corporal  of 
approved     fidelity    and    twenty    soldiers    to    be    a 


CALCUTTA.  219 

guard  to  the  agent's  person,  and  to  act  against  inter- 
lopers." 

The  "  interloper  "  of  those  days  was  the  bete  noir 
of  the  East  India  Company  and  its  servants.  He 
was  looked  upon  as  a  buccaneer,  and  when  caught 
treated  with  almost  equal  severity.  The  most  drastic 
Acts  of  Parliament  were  passed  with  a  view  to  his 
suppression,  but  neither  plenary  statutes  nor  corporals 
"  of  approved  fidelity  "  had  the  effect  of  checking  the 
illicit  trade,  which  was  generally  carried  on  by  British 
subjects  provided  with  foreign  passports,  and  through 
ships  flying  foreign  flags.  A  few  years  later  Gabriel 
Boughton,  one  of  the  Company's  surgeons,  who  had 
earned  the  gratitude  of  the  Emperor  Shah  Jahau  by 
saving  the  life  of  a  favorite  daughter,  waiving  per- 
sonal reward,  secured  as  a  return  for  his  services  the 
privilege  to  his  countrymen  of  establishing  a  factory 
near  Kalighat,  an  insignificant  village  on  the  bank  of 
the  Hugli,  which  the  genius  of  Clive  and  of  Hastings 
soon  transformed  into  the  seat  of  government  of  an 
enormous  territory,  and  wliich  later  became  the  capital 
of  the  Indian  Empire.  If  space  permitted,  it  might 
be  interesting  to  review  the  strange  series  of  political 
events,  and  the  concurrent  course  of  commercial 
development,  wliich  reversed  the  original  ordc^r  of 
importance  of  the  Presidencies.  Calcutta  was  fi)und('d 
in  1690.  At  that  time  Madi-as  was  the  senior  Presi- 
dency ;  Bombay  followed  it,  and  the  Bengal  Presidency 
did  not  oome  into  existence  until  several  years  later. 


220  INDIA. 

There  was  a  time,  probably,  wlieu  the  appearance 
of  Calcutta  justiHed  the  appellation  of  "  City  of  Pal- 
aces," in  comparison  with  the  other  European  settle- 
ments in  India.  At  the  present  day  the  stucco  walls 
and  commonplace  houses  of  the  English  poi)ulation, 
and  the  very  ordinary  aspect  of  the  native  town,  would 
hardly  suggest  any  extravagant  encomium.  There  are 
several  undoubtedly  fine  buildings  in  the  city,  but  on  the 
whole  Bombay  is  superior  to  the  capital  in  this  respect. 

Government  House  is  a  handsome  structure,  stand- 
ing in  an  enclosure  of  about  five  acres.  The  rooms 
are  full  of  historical  portraits  and  busts.  Some  of 
the  ornaments,  notably  the  chandeliers  of  the  ball- 
room, had  been  designed  by  Louis  XV.  as  presents 
to  Tipu  Siihib  at  the  time  the  ''  Tiger  "  was  carrying 
on  a  clandestine  correspondence  with  the  Aurangzeb 
of  France,  but  the  vessel,  which  carried  these  and 
other  testimonials  of  the  good  will  of  the  French 
monarch  toward  the  hereditary  enemy  of  the  British, 
fell  into  their  hands.  It  is  rather  a  curious  coinci- 
dence that  the  Viceregal  Mansion  was  erected  a 
century  ago  upon  the  lines  of  Kedleston  Hall,  Derby- 
shire, the  ancestral  home  of  the  Curzons,  to  which 
family  the  present  Viceroy  belongs. 

Classic  patterns  have  been  followed  in  the  public 
buildings,  sometimes  very  closely,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Mint,  which  is  a  reduced  model  of  the  Temple  of 
Minerva  at  Athens.  Perhaps  this  has  somewhat  to 
do  with  the  sense  of  incongruity  which  the  stranger 


General   Post  Office,  Calcutta 


CALCUTTA.  221 

experiences  at  first  sight  of  Calcutta.  The  contrast 
between  the  old  and  the  new,  the  East  and  the  West, 
seems  greater  here  than  in  Bombay  or  Madras,  where 
the  modern  architectural  features  more  often  display  a 
blending  of  Oriental  art.  Here,  too,  the  handsome 
residence  and  the  humble  hovel  are  more  frequently 
found  in  juxtaposition,  and  the  Europeanized  native 
is  more  in  evidence.  The  babu  on  a  bicycle,  and  the 
baniyaln  a  brougham,  are  sights  to  which  one  does  not 
readily  grow  accustomed.  The  unceasing  din,  and  the 
incessant  dust,  are  characteristics  of  Calcutta,  with  which 
one  can  only  become  reconciled  on  continued  residence. 
The  American  tourist  who  writes  his  or  her  book 
never  fails  to  expatiate  upon  the  discomforts  of  the 
hotels  of  the  large  cities  of  India.  The  criticisms  are 
quite  just  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  tourist,  who 
cannot  easily  understand  changed  conditions  when 
they  conflict  with  his  comfort.  The  fiict  is  that  a 
hotel  of  the  standard  of  London  or  New  York  could 
not  be  maintained  in  Calcutta  or  Bombay,  except 
upon  a  philanthropic  basis.  There  is  no  demand,  if 
we  except  the  insistent  tourist  in  question,  for  such  an 
institution.  The  Anglo-Indian  official,  army  officer, 
merchant  or  planter  seldom  puts  up  at  a  hotel,  and  the 
British  tourist  rarely.  They  are  either  housed  by 
friends  or  stay  at  a  club.  Indian  hosj»itality  is  ]>ro- 
verbial,  and  the  foreigner  who  arrives  in  the  country 
with  introductions  will  not  need  to  experience  the 
horrors  of  a  hotel. 


222  INDIA. 

Cliowrin^lii,  the  fine,  broad  avenue  extending  along 
the  entire  east  side  of  the  Maidan,  with  its  long  array 
of  yellowish-white,  flat-roofed  and  balconied  houses, 
each  iu  its  own  compound,  is  the  chief  residence 
section  of  Europeans. 

The  life  of  the  Anglo-Indian  civilian  in  Calcutta  is 
more  or  less  typical  of  his  manner  of  living  else- 
where in  the  country.  As  salaries  are  much  higher 
in  India  than  at  home,  he  can  afford  to  maintain  a 
style  and  a  degree  of  luxury  which  would  be  incom- 
patible with  a  similar  position  in  England.  From  a 
comparatively  insignificant  clerical  position  in  the 
London  offices  of  an  East  India  house,  the  young 
man  is  transplanted  to  its  Calcutta  branch,  with  a 
complete  change  in  his  condition.  From  one  hundred 
pounds  a  year  his  salary  may  be  increased  to  five 
hundred  rupees  a  month.  He  is  employed  in  a 
responsible  capacity,  and  entrusted  with  important 
affairs  of  the  firm,  while  all  the  clerical  details  are 
performed  by  natives.  He  Avill  provide  himself  with 
a  dog-cart  and  saddle-hack,  and  the  necessary  staff  of 
servants.  He  must  engage  a  bearer,  or  body-servant, 
who  performs  all  the  duties  of  a  valet ;  a  khitmat- 
gh^r,  who  wears  his  livery  and  waits  upon  him  at 
table,  whether  it  be  at  home  or  at  the  house  of  a 
friend ;  a  sais,  or  groom,  \vho  sits  at  the  back  of  his 
carriage,  or  runs  behind  his  horse;  two  punkah- 
wallahs,  a  horse-boy,  and,  if  he  has  an  establisliment 
of  his  own,  a  dozen  or  more  of  other  menials.     As 


CALCUTTA,  223 

the  wages  of  servants  iu  ludia  are  low,  compared 
with  European  standards,  tiie  maintenance  of  a  hirge 
corps  of  domestics  is  not  so  expensive  a  matter  as 
might  be  supposed.  Unless  married,  however,  the 
civilian  will  probably  live  in  a  "  chummery,"  when 
the  wages  of  house  servants  become  a  joint  expense. 

The  chummery  is  an  institution  peculiar  to  Indian 
cities,  but  one  which  might  with  advantage  be  trans- 
planted to  the  Western  hemisphere.  A  number  of 
the  homeless  civilians  with  whom  Calcutta  abounds — 
for  bachelors  are  largely  in  a  majority  among  the 
white  population — join  in  setting  up  an  establishment. 
A  married  woman  of  good  social  standing  is  secured 
to  preside  over  the  house.  She,  acting  as  though  the 
head  of  a  family,  attends  to  all  the  details  of  the 
menage,  the  expenses  of  which  are  shared  by  the 
members.  The  presence  of  a  woman,  under  such 
conditions,  has  a  healthy  restraint  upon  the  bachelors, 
and  enables  them  to  entertain  the  other  sex  with  pro- 
priety. 

As  usual  in  all  hot  climates,  the  day  is  commenced 
at  an  early  hour.  The  preliminary  toilet  is  a  very 
simple  matter,  and  consists  merely  of  a  siiit  of  white 
duck,  with  jacket  buttoning  to  the  throat,  over  liidit 
underwear.  Chota  ha/ri — literally,  little  breakfast — 
composed  of  toast  and  eggs,  with  tea  or  coffee,  breaks 
the  fast.  The  following  hour  or  so  is  passed  in  a  ride 
along  the  Ballygange  Road,  or  over  the  Maidan.  By 
seven  o'clock,  in  the  hot  weather,  the  sun  is  too  strong 


224  IMJIA. 

i'or  t'oinfort.  Rt'turniiig  lu)iue,  the  civilian  uill  take 
a  cold  bath,  aud  dress  iu  the  duck  trousers  aud  light 
silk  coat  which  constitute  the  usual  garb  during  office 
hours.  Breakfast — like  all  other  meals  of  the  Anglo- 
ludiau — is  heavier  aud  more  extensive  than  seems 
consistent  with  health  iu  the  tropics ;  but  it  is  to  be 
supposed  that  the  Englishman  in  India  finds  that  four 
meals  of  meat,  reinforced  by  liberal  draughts  of  Bass 
or  Alsopp,  agree  with  him. 

Xine  o'clock  finds  him  in  his  darkened  and  ])imkah- 
swept  room  at  the  office,  where  until  four  in  the  even- 
ing he  remains,  bargaining  with  native  merchants, 
who  sit  cross-legged  upon  a  platform,  which  serves  to 
bring  themselves  and  their  samples  upon  a  more  con- 
venient level.  The  entire  day  is  probably  spent  thus, 
watliout  the  necessity  of  exposure  to  the  heat;  for 
tiffin,  or  lunch,  is  served  in  all  the  offices.  The  return 
home  is  followed  by  a  change  of  clothing,  and  a  drive 
along  the  Esplanade  beside  the  river,  where  hun- 
dreds of  carriages  pass  up  and  down  between  the 
hours  of  five  and  seven.  One  of  the  military  bands 
plays  meanwhile  in  the  Eden  Gardens,  and  the  lawn- 
like promenade  is  thronged  with  pedestrians. 

At  seven  o'clock  barouches,  victorias  and  dog-carts 
are  carrying  their  owners  home  for  the  eight  o'clock 
dinner.  It  is  a  meal  at  which  guests  are  almost 
invariably  j^resent.  The  men  have  made  another 
change  of  clothing,  and  appear  at  the  table  in  the 
exquisitely  neat  and  cool  Indian  dinner  dress.     The 


CALCUTTA.  225 

Eton  jacket  and  trousers  are  of  starched  white  duck  ; 
a  silk  kummerbuud,  wouud  three  or  four  tiuies  round 
the  waist  in  broad  folds,  takes  the  place  of  a  waist- 
coat. The  ordinary  dress  shirt  and  tie,  patent  leather 
pumps  and  black  silk  hose,  complete  the  costume. 
The  women  are  attired  iu  evening  dresses,  made  of 
the  light  silks  and  muslins  of  Indian  manufacture. 
On  formal  occasions,  and  especially  in  the  cold 
weather,  London  and  Paris  gowns,  and  imported  hats, 
are  commonly  seen. 

Dances,  picnics,  garden  parties,  races,  gymkhanas, 
cricket  and  lawn-tennis  matches,  and  river  excursions 
are  of  daily  occurrence.  The  Viceroy's  Cup,  Gov- 
ernment House  Ball,  or  some  similar  special  occasion, 
gives  additional  zest  to  the  perpetual  round  of  festivi- 
ties. In  the  hot  weather  the  Governor-General  and 
the  leading  officials  go  to  Simla,  which  becomes  the 
seat  of  government,  and  the  social  life  of  Calcutta 
subsides. 

Every  European,  who  is  fortunate  enough  to  be  able 
to  compass  the  change, goes  to  "the  hills,"  and  failing 
that,  sends  his  wife  and  little  ones  away  from  the  debil- 
itating heat  of  the  plains.  Those,  and  they  constitute 
a  majority,  who  are  forced  to  remain  make  the  best  of 
the  conditions,  and  even  in  the  hottest  season  life  in 
Calcutta  is  not  unpleasant  by  any  means. 

The  worst  feature  of  Anglo-Indian  life  is  the  en- 
forced separation  of  parents  and  children.  It  is  neces- 
sary, for  the  sake  of  their  health  as  well  as  for  their 
Vol.  1. — 15 


'2-2C)  INDIA. 

proper  ocluoation,  that  children  born  in  India  should 
be  !?eut  "  home  "  at  four  or  five  years  of  age.  The 
mother  takes  the  little  boy  or  girl  to  England,  >vhere 
the  virtual  orphan  is  placed  in  a  boarding  school, 
and  the  mother,  torn  by  coufiictiug  affections,  is 
obliged  to  return  to  her  husband.  The  separation  is 
hardship  to  the  parents,  of  course,  but  that  is  as  nothing 
in  comparison  with  the  loss  to  the  unfortunate  infants, 
bereft  of  the  care  and  guidance  of  their  natural  guar- 
dians at  the  period  of  life  when  such  protection  and 
direction  are  of  the  greatest  importance.  Those  who 
have  read  Kipling's  "Baa,  baa,  black  sheep,"  know 
the  story  of  thousands  of  Anglo-Indian  children,  and 
they  have  it  again  in  the  early  adventures  of  Dick 
and  Maisie. 

A  few  miles  south  of  Calcutta,  beyond  the  native 
cantonment  of  Alipur,  and  Belvedere,  the  residence  of 
the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal  and  the  j)lace  where 
the  famous  duel  was  fought  between  Warren  Hastings 
and  Philip  Francis,  the  reputed  author  of  the  "Junius 
Letters,"  is  Kalighj'it,  the  village  Mhich  gave  its  name 
to  the  capital.  It  is  the  site  of  an  old  temple  dedicated 
to  Kali,  which  has  enjoyed  a  reputation  for  extreme 
sanctity  during  the  past  three  hundred  years.  From 
the  first,  the  priestly  control  of  the  place  has  been  a 
matter  of  hereditary  succession,  and  the  family  which 
enjoys  the  incumbency  is  said  to  have  grown  exceed- 
ingly wealthy  from  the  offerings  to  the  goddess.  The 
temple  is  supposed  to  stand  upon  the  spot  where  fell 


CALCUTTA.  227 

^e  of  the  finders  of  the  bloody  spouse  of  Siva,  when 
by  order  of  the  gods  she  was  cut  into  small  pieces. 
Immense  crowds  resort  to  the  shriue  upou  the  occasion 
of  festivals,  and  jmrticularly  on  the  second  day  of  the 
Durga  Puja,  the  great  Bengali  festival  held  in  honor 
of  Kali  at  the  autumnal  equinox.     At  this  time  the 
streets   of  the   village    are    thronged    with    pilgrims, 
hawkers  of  idols  and  amnlets,  vendors  of  fowls,  kids, 
goats    and    buffaloes,    fakirs     and     mendicants,    the 
maim  aud  the  fanatic.     Great  numbers  of  animals  are 
sacrificed  before  the  horrid  image  of  the  deity,  with 
its  necklace  of  skulls,  its  protruding  tongue  and  fangs, 
and  hideous  features.     The  neck  of  the  victim  is  held 
in  a  sort  of  wooden  collar,  and   its  hind   legs   lifted 
in  order  to  tilt  the  head  forward.     In  the  presence  of 
an  excited  crowd  of  howling  worshipers,  the  sacrificer 
proceeds    to   decapitate  the  animal.      If  the  head  is 
severed  from  the  trunk  at  the  first  stroke  of  the  sword, 
the  offering  is  deemed  acceptable  to  the  goddess,  and 
the  priest  carries  some  of  the  blood  in  the  palms  of 
his  hands  to  the  shrine,  and  pours  it  over  the  huce 
out-lapping  tongue  of  the  idol. 

The  worship  of  Kali  is  of  non-Aryan  origin  and  is 
restricted  to  the  low  caste  Hindus.  Durga,  the  Brah- 
jnim  concej)tion  of  the  goddess,  is  a  fair  and  beautiful, 
though  stern,  woman,  and  the  ritual  associated  with 
lier  worship  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  revoltiu"- 
practices  indulged  in  by  the  devotees  of  Kali.  For- 
merly human  beings  were  sacrificed  to  that  deity,  and 


228  INDIA. 

ill  ctiiuparativcly  recent  times  the  common  people,  in 
]>(.'ii()ds  of  distress,  have  attempted  to  appease  the 
dread  divinity  in  the  same  manner.  During  the 
famine  of  1866  a  human  head  was  found  in  the 
Tem})le  of  Kali,  at  Hugli,  and  at  another  shrine, 
Mithin  a  hundred  miles  of  the  capital,  the  body  of  a 
boy,  with  his  throat  cut,  was  discovered  before  the 
idol. 

Before  the  days  of  the  railroad  the  Ganges  was  the 
channel  for  almost  all  traffic  between  Upper  India  and 
the  seaboard,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  products  of 
the  Central  Provinces  were  transported  upon  its  waters. 
At  the  present  time  a  very  large  river  trade  is  carried 
on  by  country  boats  and  steamers,  amounting  to  up- 
wards of  four  hundred  millions  of  rupees.  The  masts 
of  many  nations,  at  all  times  massed  along  the  river 
front  of  Calcutta,  attest  to  the  enormous  ocean  trade 
carried  on  with  that  city.  The  exact  figures  for  recent 
years  are  not  available,  but  they  would  certainly 
represent  annual  exports  and  imports  approaching  two 
thousand  millions  of  rupees  in  value. 

Freight  transportation  on  the  Hugli  is  of  two 
descriptions.  There  is  the  light  draught  steamer, 
which  can  tug  flats  as  far  as  the  Jumna,  and  there 
are  sailboats  of  various  descriptions. 

I^ow- power  motor  launches  are  employed  in 
pleasure  excursions,  and  an  occasional  traveler  or 
party  will  make  a  short  journey  in  the  old-time 
budgerow.     If  the  saving^  of  time  is  not  a  considera- 


CALCUTTA.  229 

tion,  this  is  the  most  comfortable  and  pleasurable 
mode  of  reaching  up-river  points.  The  budgcrow 
may  be  of  sixty  tons  burden  or  more.  The  stern 
half  of  the  vessel  is  decked,  furnished  with  three  or 
four  spacious  rooms,  and  a  poop  covered  by  an 
awning.  The  forepart  of  the  boat  is  occupied  by  the 
crew  of  eight  or  ten  men,  who,  when  the  wind  fails, 
make  what  progress  they  may  by  rowing  or  towing. 
The  budgerow  is  accompanied  by  a  panshAva,  or  small 
boat,  used  for  cooking.  In  the  old  days,  voyages  of 
a  thousand  rniles  inland,  occupying  three  or  four 
months,  were  commonly  made  in  these  river  boats. 

The  scenery  of  the  Hugli  for  many  miles  above 
Calcutta  is  extremely  beautiful.  The  high,  wooded 
banks  are  here  and  there  broken  by  higher  promon- 
tories, crowned  by  mosque  or  temple.  The  bamboo 
throws  its  long  streamers  to  the  air,  like  the  antennae 
of  some  monster  insect ;  the  majestic  palm  in  all  its 
varieties  towers  above  the  surrounding  vegetation  ; 
the  sweet-scented  golden  balls  of  the  babul  mingle 
with  the  brilliant  tints  of  the  nim,  the  magnolia  and 
a  dozen  species  of  the  acacia  family,  toned  down  by  the 
feathery  foliage  of  more  sombre  plants.  At  short  inter- 
vals one  passes  bathing  ghats,  with  their  broad,  brick 
steps,  chunamed  and  balustraded,  and  overlooked  by 
mosque  or  pagoda,  or  perhaps  by  a  group  of  mhuts, 
resembling  nothing  so  much  as  an  aggregation  of 
monster  bee-hives. 

Now   and   again    the   attention   is   attracted   by  a 


230  i^^l>lA. 

group  at  the  water's  edge.  The  central  figure, 
stretched  u|)ou  a  cliarpoy  or  laid  iu  his  dhoti  upon 
the  sand,  is  a  dying  man,  brought  down  to  the  banks 
of  Mother  Ganga  to  breathe  his  last.  Under  the 
change  from  the  close  and  fetid  atmosphere  of  a  hovel 
to  the  fresh,  open  air  he  may  revive,  but  he  must  not 
return,  and  will  slowly  sink  for  lack  of  food,  or  the 
impatient  watchers  may  expedite  his  departure. 
Under  such  conditions,  the  writer  has  seen  a  man 
choked  with  handfuls  of  sacred  mud.  The  body  is 
carried  to  a  burning  ghat,  where  the  final  arrange- 
ments are  in  the  hands  of  pariahs.  The  corpse  is 
placed  upon  a  pile  of  logs,  and  the  pyre  is  lighted 
by  a  son  of  the  deceased.  This  last  detail  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  because  a  father  whose  son  shall 
have  the  honor  of  lighting  the  funeral  pyre,  and  of 
performing  the  annual  Shrads  and  Mantras — the  essen- 
tial prayers  and  offerings  to  the  manes — will  be  doubly 
blessed  in  Kylas.  A  Brahman  who  is  unfortunately 
sonless  must  adopt  a  son,  or,  if  he  be  sufficiently 
wealthy,  several,  by  which  means  alone  he  may  enter 
Kylas,  and  avoid  the  transmigrations  which  he  would 
surely  be  doomed  to  undergo  if  his  Shrads  and  Man- 
tras should  not  be  performed.  This  feature  of  Hindu 
theology  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  adoption  of  Nana 
Siihib  by  Baji  Rao,  and  of  many  other  similar  adop- 
tions, which  caused  the  British  interminable  trouble 
in  the  settlement  of  estates. 

The  practice  of  cremation  has  been  encouraged  by 


BARRACKPUR.  231 

the  authorities  from  sanitary  considerations,  although 
it  is  not  unconnected  with  sights  and  smells  of  a 
repulsive  character.  Certiiin  classes  adopt  much  more 
objectionable  methods  of  disposing  of  their  dead. 
In  some  cases  the  body  is  buried  in  the  sand  of  the 
river-bed,  when  the  jackals  dig  it  up  at  night  and 
tear  it  to  pieces  ;  others  throw  the  cadaver  into  the 
river,  where  it  floats  back  and  forth  with  the  tide, 
bloated  and  ghastly.  In  tlic  neighborhood  of  the 
large  cities,  however,  the  authorities  have  been  able 
to  suppress  or  regulate  these  practices. 

As  night  fades  the  aspect  of  the  river  changes. 
Under  the  rays  of  a  tropical  ninon,  ^\hich  at  its  zenith 
is  strong  enougli  to  allow  of  one's  reading  small  print 
by  its  liglit,  the  scene  is  inexpressibly  lovely.  The 
muddy  water  of  the  swiftly,  softly  flowing  stream  is 
changed  to  a  scintillant  steel  blue,  in  haj)py  contrast 
with  the  M^arm  gold  tint  of  the  banks ;  false  perspec- 
tives create  fantastic  fancies  ;  myriads  of  fireflies  flit 
about  the  branches  of  the  trees,  which  seem  to  emit 
from  their  shadows  a  pale-green,  lambent  atmosphere. 

At  about  twelve  miles  distant  from  Calcutta  stands 
the  picturesque  station  of  Barrackjmr.  The  natives 
call  the  place  Chanuk,  in  memory  of  the  first 
Governor-General  of  Bengal,  who  once  lived  here. 
Job  Charnock  was  a  "  character."  INIany  curious 
stories  are  still  extant  among  the  Europeans  and 
natives  of  his  eccentricities.  He  once  came  upon  a 
funeral   party  just  as  a  widow  was  about  to  commit 


232  INDIA. 

sati.  He  forcibly  prevented  her  from  making  the 
saoriiice,  and  subsequently  niarriud  her.  Instead  of 
converting  the  lady  to  Christianity,  as  might  have 
been  expected,  he  himself  lapsed  into  Brahmanism. 
Chamock  survived  his  Hindu  wife  by  several  years, 
and  on  each  anniversary  of  her  death  he  sacrificed  a 
cock  upon  her  tomb  to  the  goddess  Durga. 

Barrackpur  has  been  the  country  residence  of  the 
Viceroys  since  tlie  time  of  Lord  Minto,  who  com- 
menced the  construction  of  the  Vice-regal  Lodge. 
The  Viceroy,  when  in  Calcutta,  usually  takes  his 
Sabbath  rest  here. 

Serampur,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  has 
the  distinction  of  being  as  neat  and  clean  and 
orderly  a  town  as  one  will  find  in  Hindustan.  Along 
the  river  front,  range  a  number  of  handsome  houses, 
surrounded  by  spacious  courtyards,  containing  fine 
old  shade  trees  and  extensive  lawns.  These  are  the 
residences  of  Europeans  with  business  in  Calcutta, 
who  prefer  the  more  healthy  and  quieter  evenings 
spent  in  the  environments  of  this  delightful  suburb,  to 
the  somewhat  strenuous  manner  of  employing  leisure 
in  the  city.  There  is  a  subdued  religious  atmosphere 
about  the  place  Avhich,  they  say,  is  indigenous,  and 
existed  even  in  the  days  when  Serampur  had  a  thriv- 
ing trade  and  "  twenty-two  vessels  cleared  from  the 
small  port  in  three  months."  It  was  called  Freder- 
icksuagar  by  the  Danes,  who  were  the  first  Europeans 
upon  the  spot.     They  immediately  erected  a  church, 


SEEAMrUR.  233 

did  a  little  missionary  work  in  an  unaggressive  way, 
and  formed  an  industrious,  quiet  and  peaceable  com- 
munity— so  quiet  and  peaceable,  in  fact,  that  they 
were  quite  overlooked  in  the  wars  and  turmoils  that 
went  on  all  around  them.  They  never  added  a  rood 
to  the  original  territory ;  but  then  tliey  were  never 
disturbed  in  the  possession  of  it,  and  eventually,  Avhen 
conunercial  competition  with  the  British  became  too 
severe  for  continuance,  sold  it  to  them,  in  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  At  the  present  time  the 
Courts  of  Justice  and  the  various  administrative 
offices  of  the  district  occupy  the  fine  old  mansion  of 
the  Danish  Governor,  and  the  church,  erected  a  cen- 
tury ago,  is  now  upon  the  Anglican  establishment. 

Serampur  was  the  scene  of  the  labors  of  Carey  and 
Marshman  and  Ward,  who  found  refuge  here  when 
the  authorities  at  Calcutta  would  have  shipped  them 
home.  Before  tlie  dawn  of  the  last  century  there 
was  little  inclination  on  the  part  of  those  in  power 
under  the  British  Government  to  encourage  Dissenters. 
From  the  press  set  up  by  these  Baptist  pioneers  at 
Serampur  were  issued  forty  translations  of  tlie  Bible, 
the  first  editions  of  which  are  treasured  in  the  College 
library.  Among  a  number  of  valuable  relics,  the 
Baptist  College  is  in  possession  of  a  history  of  the 
apostles,  written  by  a  nephew  of  Xavicr,  at  the 
request  of  the  eclectic  philosopher  Akbar.  The  Prin- 
cipal of  the  College  lives  in  the  house  which  Carey 
occupied,  and    in  which    he  died.      The  large  house 


234  INDIA, 

near  by,  Avhicli  was  the  headquarters  of  the  Serampur 
IJaptlst  scttleiucnt,  together  with  Carey's  famous 
botauieal  gardeu,  is  now  the  property  of  a  jute 
niauufacturing  company.  This  industry  sprang  up 
very  suddenly  wlicn  the  Crimean  war  shut  off  from 
I'^ngland  the  Kussian  supply  of  fibre  and  gunnies. 
It  has  flourished  exceedingly,  and  more  than  holds  its 
own  with  all  competitors. 

The  cultivation  of  jute  is  almost  entirely  confined 
to  the  northern  and  eastern  sections  of  Bengal,  and 
has  been  the  most  important  factor  in  the  prosperity 
of  the  inhabitants  of  those  parts.  It  is  chiefly  raised 
in  small  patches  by  individual  peasant  proprietors. 
The  plant  is  extremely  hardy,  and  will  grow  in 
almost  any  kind  of  soil,  but  thrives  best  in  the 
alluvial  sand-banks  formed  by  the  large  rivers.  After 
attaining  a  growth  of  three  or  four  feet,  which  is 
about  one-third  of  its  ultimate  height,  the  plant  will 
survive  the  heaviest  floods.  The  seed  is  sown  in 
April,  and  the  crop  is  ready  for  the  sickle  in  August. 
The  stalks  are  cut,  bundled,  and  soaked  in  water  until 
rotted  to  a  degree  which  will  permit  of  the  outer  skin 
being  easily  stripped  off.  The  fibre  is  then  broken 
out  and  thoroughly  washed,  after  which  it  Avill  pre- 
sent a  soft  and  silky  aj^pearance.  It  only  remains  to 
pack  it  into  bales  for  shipment.  The  whole  process 
is  simple,  requiring  no  machiner}'  whatever,  and  con- 
sequently makes  an  industry  admirably  adapted  to 
the  condition  of  the  moneyless  riiyat.     The  bales  are 


CHANDAKNAGAR.  235 

carried  in  bullock-carts  to  the  nearest  river  depot, 
where  they  are  purchased  by  beparis,  or  traveling 
hucksters,  who  carry  them  in  boats  to  Sirajganj,  or 
one  other  of  the  large  centres  of  the  trade.  Here  the 
accumulations  from  numerous  points  are  transferred 
to  a  few  native  wholesale  dealers,  by  whom  the 
material  is  shipped  to  Howrah,  or  some  other  manu- 
facturing point  in  the  vicinity  of  Calcutta,  where 
the  final  process  is  performed  by  steam  power. 
Europeans  control  the  jute  mills;  otherwise  the 
industry  is  in  the  hands  of  natives  exclusively.  In 
1890-'91  the  exports  of  raw  jute  and  gunny-bags 
aggregated  a  vahie  of  Rxl 0,083,972.  There  were 
twenty-four  mills  in  operation  in  Bengal,  affording 
employment  to  upwards  of  sixty  thousand  persons. 

Why  the  French  retain  Chandarnagar  it  would  be 
difficult  for  any  one  to  imagine,  unless,  since  it  has 
been  in  their  possession  for  close  on  three  and  a 
half  centuries,  they  are  actuated  Ijy  motives  of  senti- 
ment. It  has  long  since  ceased  to  have  any  political 
or  commercial  value.  There  are  evidences  of  the 
"stone  dwellings  to  the  number  of  two  thousand," 
which  in  the  time  of  Duplcix  betokened  the  import- 
ance of  the  place ;  but  where  ''  twelve  or  fifteen 
vessels  a  day  were  coming  and  going,"  a  few  listless 
natives  hang  about  the  deserted  landing-place.  The 
once  "  impregnable "  fort,  Avhich  was  not  proof 
against  Watson's  vigorous  assault,  lies  in  ruins,  and 
the  erstwhile  martial  strength  of  the  place  is  repre- 


236  I^DIA. 

sented  by  a  standing  army  of  twenty-four  sepoys, 
nntler  the  command  of  a  sous-lieutenant.  The  force 
is  small,  but  quite  adequate  to  its  simple  duties, 
which  consist  of  firing  the  signal  gun  at  the  rising 
and  setting  of  the  sun,  raising  and  lowering  the  tri- 
color at  the  same  times,  and  furnishing  a  guard  of 
two  sentries  for  the  Governor's  palace. 

But  if  Chandarnagar  can  lay  no  claim  to  distinction 
as  a  ])usiness  centre,  it  is  fully  justified  in  its  boast  of 
being  second  to  none  in  the  matter  of  beauty  and 
cleanliness.  It  enjoys  a  lovely  situation,  the  natural 
advantages  of  which  have  been  enhanced  by  artificial 
improvements,  as  in  the  case  of  the  elevated  terrace 
overlooking  the  river.  Its  low,  handsome  houses  are 
classic  in  design,  fronted  or  surrounded  by  colonnades, 
and  situated  in  beautiful  gardens  of  tropic  trees  and 
plants.  There  are  signs  of  decay  about  the  place, 
and  an  air  of  lassitude  about  its  people  that  must 
offend  the  eye  of  the  trader,  but  the  peaceful  quiet 
and  the  dolce  far  niente  of  old  Chandarnagar  cannot 
fail  to  appeal  to  the  intellectual  loafer. 

Historic  Hiigli,  the  site  of  siege  and  sack  and  mas- 
sacre, lies  about  twenty-five  miles  above  Calcutta. 
The  Portuguese  first  settled  here  in  1547.  The  re- 
mains of  their  first  fort  may  be  seen  six  miles  distant  in 
a  former  bed  of  the  river,  which  has  shifted  its  course, 
after  the  manner  of  Indian  streams.  A  tliriving, 
bustling  city  soon  sprang  up  on  the  spot.  Large  quan- 
tities of  merchandise  found  their  way  from  the  interior 


HUGLI.  237 

to  Europe  through  the  port  of  Hiigli,  and  incoming 
ships  brought  immigrants  until  the  white  population 
exceeded  five  thousand.  But  the  prosperity  of  the 
settlement,  by  arousing  jealousy  at  the  Court  of  Shah 
Jahan,  brought  about  the  undoing  of  the  Portuguese. 
The  bigoted  Mumtaj  Mahal,  the  dedicatee  of  the  TjIj, 
sent  a  peremjitory  order  to  the  Nawab  of  Bengal  to 
"  root  out  the  Kafirs  "  at  Hugli.  The  place  was  be- 
sieged and  fell  after  four  months  resistance.  Upwards 
of  a  thousand  Portuguese  fell  by  the  sword,  and  four 
thousand  were  led  away  into  captivity,  the  men  to  be 
sold  as  slaves,  and  the  women  and  children  to  be 
drafted  into  the  harems  of  the  Mughal  nobility.  Of 
three  hundred  Portuguese  vessels  in  port  at  the  time, 
only  three  escaped  to  carry  the  harrowing  tale  to 
Europe. 

At  the  present  day  Hiigli  has  a  considerable  trade, 
and  maintains  a  population  of  over  thirty  thousand, 
inclusive  of  the  suburb  of  Chinsuriih,  which  the  Dutch 
made  over  to  the  English  in  exchange  for  the  island 
of  Sumatra.  It  is  a  quaint  little  place,  and  was  once 
the  headquarters  of  the  Dutch  in  Bengal,  The  old 
Protestant  church,  one  of  the  earliest  in  India,  con- 
tains a  number  of  tablets  bearing  the  escutcheons  of 
Dutch  governors  and  officials,  whose  neglected  tombs 
arc  in  the  neighboring  cemetery. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

SAT  I     AND     Til  A  of. 

To  Lord  William  Bentiuck  is  due  the  honor  of 
having  suppressed  those  ancient,  but  abominable 
institutions — Sati  and  Thagi.  The  origin  of  Sati  is 
obscure,  but  it  must  have  been  practiced  in  India 
from  early  times,  since  Diodorus  Siculus  mentions  it 
as  an  established  custom.  The  Bnihmans  have  always 
asserted  that  the  Vedas  exacted  from  the  widow  the 
sacrifice  of  her  life  as  a  mark  of  her  devotion  to  her 
husband.  So  long  as  the  ability  to  read  the  sacred 
books  was  limited  to  the  priestly  caste,  this  base 
fiction  went  unchallenged ;  but  the  investigations  of 
modem  Sanskrit  scholars  have  proved  conclusively 
that,  far  from  any  such  obligation  being  imposed  by 
the  Rig- Veda,  the  Grihyu-Sutras,  or  the  Code  of 
Manu,  there  is  nowhere  to  be  found  even  the  sugges- 
tion of  Sati,  with  the  single  exception  of  a  passage 
which  has  been  corrupted  by  the  substitution  of  an  n 
for  an  r,  making  the  Avord  agreh  (house)  read  agueh 
(fire).  On  the  other  hand,  the  ancient  books  abound 
in  references  to  the  life  of  the  widow  after  the  death 
of  her  husband.     How  many  millions  of  women  have 

238 


SATI.  239 

been  victims  to  this  vile  deception,  in  the  more  than 
two  thousand  years  of  its  activity,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  surmise. 

The  comparatively  modern  Puranas,  a  strange 
mixture  of  beautiful  doctrine  and  ignoble  dogma, 
commend  Sati  in  the  following  terms ;  "  The  wife 
who  commits  herself  to  the  flames  with  her  husband's 
corpse  shall  equal  Arandhuti  (the  exalted  wife  of 
Vashista),  and  dwell  in  Swarga  (heaveuly  bliss).  As 
many  hairs  as  are  on  the  human  body,  multiplied  by 
threescore  and  fifty  lakhs^  of  years,  so  many  years 
shall  she  live  with  him  in  Swarga.  As  the  snake- 
catcher  forcibly  draws  the  serpent  from  his  hole  in 
the  earth,  so,  bearing  her  husband  from  hell,  she 
shall  with  him  enjoy  happiness.  Dying  with  her 
husband,  she  purifies  three  generations — her  father's 
and  mother's  side  and  her  husband's  side.  Such  a 
wife,  adoring  her  husband,  enters  into  celestial 
felicity  with  him — greatest  and  most  admired ;  lauded 
by  the  choirs  of  heaven,  with  him  she  shall  enjoy  the 
delights  of  heaven  while  fourteen  Indras  reign." 

It  will  be  noticed  how  artfully  this  doctrine  is 
designed  to  influence  the  widow  from  motives  of  duty, 
love  and  self-interest.  "  While  the  pile  is  preparing, 
tell  tlie  faithful  wife  of  the  greatest  duty  of  woman. 
tShe  is  alone  loyal  and  pure  who  burns  herself  with 
her  husband's  corpse." 

But  in  case   these   considerations  fail    to   exercise 

»  A  lakh  is  lOO.OUO. 


240  INDIA. 

suffioiout  wtMjj;!!!,  and  the  pleadings  and  threats  of 
relatives,  and  the  delirium  induced  by  drugs,  are 
unavailing,  then  it  is  decreed  that  the  widow  who 
will  not  immolate  herself"  shall  be  doomed  to  a  life  of 
degradation  and  hardship,  hardly  better  than  death. 

If  the  Brail  mans  had  been  actuated  by  considera- 
tions of  social  economy  or  State  policy  in  the  institu- 
tion of  Sati,  their  crime  would  not  have  utterly  lacked 
extenuating  features,  but  it  appears  to  have  had  no 
other  motive  than  pure  avarice.  At  no  other  cere- 
mony were  the  fees  and  donations  received  by  the 
priests  so  great  as  at  this,  for  no  other  act  involved 
such  wide-spread  blessings — upon  the  deceased,  upon 
the  victim,  and  upon  the  parents  of  both. 

Doctor  Butler,  whose  opportunities  for  getting 
information  of  this  dreadful  rite  were  unusual,  thus 
describes  it : 

"  The  husband  is  dead.  In  India  the  body  must 
be  disposed  of  in  twelve  hours.  In  the  tumult  of  her 
grief,  the  Brdhmans  and  friends  wait  upon  the  dis- 
tracted widow  to  learn  her  intentions.  There  is  no 
time  for  reflection  or  second  thought.  Within  an 
hour  it  is  usually  settled.  She  agrees  to  mingle  her 
ashes  with  her  lord's.  Opium  or  strong  drink  is 
given  to  sustain  her  courage.  Before  the  word  is 
spoken,  the  decision  is  with  herself;  but,  once 
consenting  to  die,  she  may  not  recall  her  words. 
Millions,  of  course,  have  expressed  a  trembling 
preference  for  life,  even  with  all  its  future  gloom  to 


SATI.  241 

them  ;  but  multitiides  have  consented  at  once  to  burn, 
and  even  in  advance  of  being  asked,  they  have,  in  the 
first  spasm  of  their  bereavement,  uttered  the  fatal 
and  irrevocable  cry,  *  Sath  !  sath  !'  Orders  are  at 
once  issued  for  the  erection  of  the  fatal  pile,  and  the 
accustomed  ceremonies  ;  the  widow,  too,  has  to  be 
prepared.  Friends  sometimes,  with  more  or  less 
sincerity,  try  to  dissuade  her  from  her  purpose  ;  but 
all  her  religious  convictions  and  priestly  advisers  urge 
on  the  poor,  infatuated — perhaps  intoxicated — woman 
to  her  doom. 

"  On  the  banks  of  the  sacred  river,  while  she 
bathes  in  the  Ganges,  a  Brahman  is  coolly  reading 
the  usual  forms.  She  is  now  arrayed  in  bridal 
costume,  but  her  face  is  unveiled,  and  her  hair  un- 
bound and  saturated  with  oil,  and  her  whole  body  is 
perfumed.  Her  jewels  are  now  added,  and  she  is 
adorned  with  garlands  of  flowers.  Thus  prepared, 
she  is  conducted  to  the  pile,  which  is  an  oblong 
square,  formed  of  four  stout  bamboos  or  branches 
fixed  in  the  earth  at  each  comer.  Within  those  sup- 
ports the  dry  logs  are  laid  from  three  to  four  feet 
high,  with  cotton,  rope  and  other  combustibles  inter- 
hux'd.  Chips  of  odoriferous  wood,  butter  and  oil  arc 
plentifully  added  to  give  force  and  fragrance  to  the 
flames. 

"  The  ends  above  are  interwoven  to  form  a  bower, 
and  this  is  sometimes  decked  with  flowers.  The 
husband's  body  has  already  been  laid  upon  it.  In 
Vol.  I.— 16 


242  INDIA. 

the  south  of  India  the  tire  is  first  applied,  and  the 
widow  throws  herself  into  the  burning  mass ;  but 
the  more  general  way  is  not  to  apply  the  fire  until 
she  has  taken  her  position.  The  size  of  the  pile  is 
regulated  by  the  number  of  widows  who  are  to  be 
burned  with  the  body.  Cases  are  well  known,  like 
the  one  at  Sukachura,  near  Calcutta,  where  the  pile 
was  nearly  twelve  yards  long,  and  on  it  eigliteen 
wives,  leaving  in  all  over  forty  children,  burned 
themselves  with  the  body  of  their  husband.  When 
the  widow  reaches  the  pile,  she  walks  round  it,  sup- 
ported, if  necessary,  by  a  Brahman.  She  then  dis- 
tributes her  gifts,  including  her  jewels,  to  the 
Brahman  and  her  friends,  but  retains  her  garlands. 
She  now  approaches  the  steps  by  which  she  is  to 
mount  the  pile,  and  there  repeats  the  Sancalpa,  thus  : 
'On  this  month,  so  named  that  I  may  enjoy  with 
my  husband  the  felicity  of  heaven  and  sanctify  my 
paternal  and  maternal  progenitors,  and  the  ancestry 
of  my  husband's  father — that  expiation  may  be  made 
for  my  husband's  offences — thus  I  ascend  my  hus- 
band's pile.  I  call  on  you,  ye  guardians  of  the  eight 
regions  of  the  world,  sun  and  moon,  air,  fire,  ether, 
earth  and  water,  my  own  soul,  Yama  (god  of  the 
dead),  day,  night  and  twilight  !  And  you,  conscience, 
bear  witness,  I  follow  my  husband's  corpse  on  the 
funeral  pile !' 

"  She  then  moves  round  the  pile  three  times  more, 
while  the  Brahmans    repeat  the    INIantras — the  texts 


SATI.  243 

on  burning  and  others — and  then  ascends  to  the 
corpse,  and  either  lies  down  by  its  side  or  takes  its 
head  iu  her  lap.  In  some  places  ropes  are  thrown 
over  to  bind  the  living  to  the  dead,  or  long  bam- 
boos are  bent  down  upon  them  both,  and  the  ends 
fastened  by  Brahmans.  Sometimes  she  is  left  untied 
and  loose.  All  is  now  ready ;  her  eldest  son,  if  she 
have  one — if  not,  the  nearest  male  relative — stands 
ready  to  discharge  the  cruel  office  of  executioner  by 
igniting  the  pile  at  the  four  corners  quickly.  The 
whole  structure  instantly  blazes  up,  and  the  poor 
woman  is  at  once  enveloped  in  a  sheet  of  flame. 
Musical  instruments  strike  up,  the  Brahmans  vocif- 
erously chant,  the  crowd  shout  '  Hari-bal !  Hari- 
bal !'  ('  Call  on  Hari ! ')  so  that  her  moans  or 
shrieks  are  drowned  in  the  infernal  din  raised  around 
her. 

"Just  at  this  period  of  the  proceedings  is  the  dread- 
ful moment  when  woman's  courage  has  so  often  failed 
her,  and  nature  has  proved  too  strong  for  fanaticism. 
If  not  at  once  overwhelmed  or  suffocated,  even 
though  she  knows  that  her  attempt  to  escape  will  be 
resisted  as  a  duty  by  her  own  friends,  wlio  would 
regard  her  as  an  outcast,  the  victim  not  infr(>(pient]y, 
when  left  unbound,  springs  off  the  burning  mass 
among  the  spectators  and  piteously  pleads  for  life. 
Alas !  it  is  too  late ;  there  is  no  mercy  for  her  now. 
She  is  at  once  struck  down  by  a  sword  or  a  billet  of 
wood,  and  flung  back  again  on  the  pik',  her  own  sou 


244  INDIA. 

having  been  known  to  be  one  of  the  most  forward  to 
tie  her  hands  and  foct  for  this  purpose." 

The  Sati  which  followed  the  death  of  Ranjit  Singh, 
in  1839,  was  the  most  gorgeous  of  recent  times.  It 
was  witnessed  by  all  Lahore.  A  procession  went  from 
the  palace  to  the  place  of  burning.  First  came  the 
body  of  the  dead  Maharaja,  bedecked  in  jewels  and 
wrapped  in  the  most  costly  Kashmir  shawls.  The 
four  Ranis,  or  Queens,  followed  in  open  palanquins, 
and  behind  them  the  seven  other  wives  on  foot,  some 
of  them  less  than  fifteen  years  of  age.  After  these 
the  members  of  the  Court,  State  officials  and  soldiery. 
The  preliminary  ceremonies  having  been  performed, 
the  four  Ranis  mounted  the  pile,  in  the  order  of  their 
rank,  and  seated  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  corpse, 
the  seven  inferior  wives  forming  a  group  round  its 
feet.  All  appeared  to  be  perfectly  calm  and  resigned. 
The  chief  widow  called  her  son,  Dhulip  Singh,  and 
the  Minister  to  her,  and  placing  the  hand  of  the  dead 
Maharaja  first  in  the  hand  of  the  heir,  and  then  in 
that  of  the  Minister,  required  them  to  swear  to  mutual 
faithfulness.  A  strong  mat  of  reeds  was  then  placed 
over  the  women,  and  oil  plentifully  poured  over  it. 
The  light  was  applied,  and  in  fifteen  minutes  the 
twelve  bodies  w'cre  one  heap  of  ashes  and  charred 
bones.  The  remains  were  placed  in  urns  and  con- 
veyed to  the  city,  amid  the  greatest  pomp  and  display. 
The  ceremony  cost  several  millions  of  rupees,  the 
bulk  of  which  fell  to  the  Brahmans. 


THAGI.  245 

So  strong  a  hold  upon  the  people  had  the  institution 
of  SatI  that  the  edicts  of  Akbar  and  Aurangzeb  effected 
little,  if  any,  restraint  upon  the  practice.  The  laws 
put  into  force  by  the  British  Viceroys  provided  for  the 
severe  punishment  of  any  person  aiding-  or  abetting  a 
Sati.  These  measures,  together  with  the  strictest  police 
surveillance,  entirely  suppressed  the  public  ceremony, 
but  the  rite  was  carried  on  secretly,  though  with  steady 
diminution,  for  many  years  after  Lord  Bentinck's 
regime.  Indeed,  it  is  said  that  w'ithin  recent  years 
Sati  has  occurred  in  remote  parts  of  the  country. 

India  is  probably  the  only  land  in  which  has  existed 
an  hereditary  class  of  murderers.  Here  the  Thags 
have  been  an  organized  body,  devoted  to  the  dreadful 
vocation  of  strangling  human  beings,  since  time  imme- 
morial. The  Thags  themselves  claim  that  their  order 
existed  when  the  gods  peopled  the  earth.  They  pre- 
tend to  adduce  proof  of  divine  approval  for  their 
practices  from  the  sculptures  in  the  caves  of  Ellora. 
There  they  assert  that  all  the  processes  of  the  Thags, 
or  "deceivers,"  are  depicted  in  the  carvings;  the 
inveigler  sitting  on  tlie  same  mat  with  the  traveler  and 
striving  to  gain  his  confidence;  stmnglcrs  and  their 
victims;  the  body  being  dragged  to  cover;  and  the 
grave  being  dug  for  its  reception.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  these  are  perfectly  fancIAd  interpretations 
of  the  sculptures  in  question.  The  south  of  India 
was  the  stronjihold  of  this  tribe  of  miscreants,  but 
their   organization    extended  over  the  whole  a)Uiitry. 


246  IN  1)1  A. 

Originally  Hindus  of  a  peculiar  caste,  they  gradually 
admitted  other  castes  to  the  order,  and  in  the  past  tAVO 
centuries  recruited  largely  among  the  Muhammadans. 
"While  the  name  Thag,  or  Thug,  is  best  known  to 
Europeans,  the  natives  generally  use  the  more  signifi- 
cant term,  "  Phunsigar,"  denoting  a  stranglcr. 

Thagi  is  an  hereditary  calling  and  a  secret  order, 
so  secret  in  fact  that  not  until  1800  did  the  British 
suspect  the  existence  of  such  an  institution.  AYhen, 
however,  their  eyes  were  once  opened  to  the  reality, 
they  set  about  the  suppression  of  Thagi  with  vigor. 
It  was  a  difficult  task,  and  slow  of  execution ;  but, 
although  many  Thags  are  still  alive,  several  years  have 
elapsed  since  the  last  act  of  Thagi  was  committed. 

Some  slight  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  operations  of 
these  professional  murderers  may  be  gathered  from  the 
results  of  the  prosecutions  instituted  by  the  authorities 
in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  centur}-.  Between 
the  years  1826  and  1835,  upwards  of  fifteen  hundred 
prisoners  were  tried  for  the  crime  of  Thagi,  and  four- 
teen hundred  were  convicted.  These  men-  had  been 
actively  engaged  in  taking  life  for  an  average  period 
of  fifteen  years,  and  during  that  period  each  had  dis- 
posed of  an  avcmge  of  thirty-five  persons.  However, 
the  number  of  Thags  actually  discovered  was  a  very 
small  proportion  of  the  whole. 

The  particular  patroness  of  the  Thags  is  the  goddess 
Kali,  who  is  supposed  to  be  especially  gratified  by  the 
sacrifice  of  human  life.     Whilst  the  prospect  of  plun- 


THAGI.  247 

der  afforded  a  strong  incentive  for  the  practice  of 
Thagi,  it  was  in  very  few  cases  the  initiatory  motive. 
In  the  great  majority  of  instances  the  Thag  was 
trained  to  the  calling  as  a  child,  and  followed  it  be- 
cause his  father  had  done  so,  and  because  he  Avas 
taught  to  regard  murder  as  a  religious  duty.  Some 
justification  for  this  idea  was  found  in  the  Puranas, 
w^hich  say  with  reference  to  Kali,  "  The  blood  of  a  lion 
or  a  man  will  delight  her  appetite  for  a  thousand  years, 
while  by  the  blood  of  three  men,  slain  in  sacrifice,  she 
is  pleased  a  hundred  thousand  years." 

It  was  in  the  service  of  this  amiable  divinity  that 
for  ages  the  Thag  strangled  his  unsuspecting  victim, 
and  the  Hindu  mother  immolated  her  infant  daughter. 

The  Thag  child  w^as  initiated  into  the  order  by  a 
progressive  course  of  tuition.  At  first  he  would  be 
taken  with  the  gang  upon  a  pony,  as  though  the  excur- 
sion were  for  pleasure  or  trade,  and  carefully  kept  out 
of  the  way  when  the  tragic  deed  was  done.  After  a 
wdiile  he  would  be  allowed  to  know  that  the  party  Avas 
engaged  in  robbery,  and  would  be  permitted  to  share 
in  the  proceeds.  By  slow  degrees  the  awful  nature  of 
the  expeditions  would  be  divulged  to  him,  and  by  de- 
grees he  would  pass  through  the  various  grades  of 
scout,  sexton  and  inveigler,  to  the  high  and  sacred 
ofiice  of  strangler.  His  admission  to  the  last  grade 
was  the  occasion  for  a  solemn  feast  and  formal  ceremo- 
nies, when  gur — sugar  prepared  in  some  peculiar  and 
secret  manner  —  w^as  o-iven  to  the  candidate.      The 


248  INDIA. 

effect  of  this  gur  is  said  to  have  been  extraordinary. 
Reproached  with  a  more  than  usually  atrocious  mur- 
der, a  Thag  replied,  "  Wq  all  feel  pity  sometimes,  but 
the  gur  changes  our  nature ;  it  would  chauge  the 
nature  of  a  horse.  Let  any  man  taste  of  that  gur, 
and  he  will  be  a  Thag,  though  he  know  all  the  trades 
and  have  all  the  wealth  in  the  world.  I  never  wanted 
aught ;  my  mother's  family  was  opulent — her  relations 
high  in  office.  I  have  been  high  in  office  myself,  and 
was  sure  of  promotion ;  yet  I  was  always  miserable 
when  absent  from  my  gang,  and  was  obliged  to  return 
to  Thagi.  My  fatlier  made  me  taste  of  that  fatal  gur 
when  I  was  yet  a  mere  boy,  and  if  I  were  to  live  a 
thousand  years  I  never  should  be  able  to  follow  any 
other  calling." 

The  Thag  usually  had  some  ordinary  vocation,  which 
acted  as  a  cloak  to  his  principal  pursuit.  A  Thag 
expedition  was  always  conducted  upon  the  most 
orderly  system,  and  with  the  utmost  precautions 
against  discovery.  On  these  occasions  a  gang  would 
generally  consist  of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  men — 
and  sometimes  women — subdivided  into  parties  of 
ten  or  twenty.  These  paiiies  would  travel  upon  the 
same  road  at  intervals,  or  upon  parallel  routes,  some- 
times several  miles  apart.  They  were  connected  by 
scouts,  and  always  prepared  to  act  in  concert.  They 
readily  assumed  any  disguise,  from  that  of  the 
wealthy  merchant,  traveling  with  an  escort,  to  that 
of  a  band  of  poor  pilgrims.     In  those  days  travelers 


THAGI.  249 

were  almost  always  glad  to  augment  the  mimber  of 
their  company  as  protection  against  the  dangers  of  the 
road.     Thus   a   caravan,   not   over-confident   in    the 
strength  of  its  guard,  would  welcome  the  addition  of 
a  band  of  strong-armed  men,  who  happened   to   be 
journeying  in  the  same  direction,  as  the  body-guard 
of  an  opulent  zaminddr.      A  band  of  Thags  would 
straggle  into  a  village,  singly  or  in  small  parties,  and 
pretend  not  to  recognize  one  another.     One  of  them 
would  worm   his  way  into   the   confidence  of  some 
traveler,  and,  feigning  to  be  bound  in  the  same  direc- 
tion,  propose   that   they   should   seek   others   whose 
route  coincided  with  theirs,  and   arrange  to  journey 
together  for  the  sake  of  mutual  protection. 

A  common  artifice  of  the  Thags  is  described^  by 
Thevenot  in  his  account  of  a  journey  from  Delhi  to 
Agra,    in    the   middle   of   the    seventeenth    century: 
"One  may  meet  with  tigers,  panthers  and  lions;  and 
one  had  best  also  have  a  care  of  robbers,  and,  above 
all,  Thags,  nor  to  suffer  anybody  to  come  near  one 
upon  the  road.     The  cunningest  robbers  in  the  world 
are  in  that  country.     They  use  a  certain  slip,  with  a 
running  noose,  which   they   can  cast  with  so  much 
sleight  about  a  man's  neck,   when    they    are    within 
reach   of  him,  that   they   never   fail;   so   that   they 
strangle  him  in  a  trice.     They  have  another  cunning 
trick  also  to  catch  travelers  with.     They  send  out  a 
handsome  woman  upon  the  road,  who,  with  her  hair 
disheveled,  seems  to  be  all  in  t^ars,  sighiug  and  com- 


250  INDIA. 

j)laiiiing  of  some  misfortune  wliicli  she  pretends  has 
befallen  her.  Now,  as  she  takes  the  same  way  that 
the  traveler  goes,  he  easily  falls  into  conversation 
with  her,  and  linding  her  beautiful,  oifers  her  his 
assistance,  which  she  accepts ;  but  he  hath  no  sooner 
taken  her  up  behind  him  on  horseback  but  she  throws 
the  snare  about  his  neck  and  strangles  him,  or  at 
least  stuns  him  until  the  robbers,  who  lie  hid,  come 
running  to  her  assistance,  and  complete  what  she  hath 
begun." 

When  about  to  commit  the  act  of  strangulation,  the 
Thags  contrived  to  range  themselves  one  on  each  side 
of  the  victim,  and  when  there  were  several,  the  attack 
was  made  on  all  simultaneously.  The  sash,  or  rumal, 
was  adroitly  thrown  over  the  head  of  the  victim,  and 
one  end  passed  to  the  confederate  on  the  other  side 
and  (piickly  drawn  tight,  when  "  in  a  trice"  the  confid- 
ing traveler  was  in  the  convulsions  of  death.  During 
the  enactment  of  this  scene  scouts  were  posted  in 
every  direction  to  guard  against  surprise,  and  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  any  that  might  perchance 
avoid  the  noose.  The  bodies  were  buried  in  deep 
graves  or  thrown  into  wells.  The  latter  practice  led 
to  the  discovery  of  several  bands  of  Thags  in  the  early 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

In  addition  to  the  Thags  who  pursued  their  calling 
upon  the  road,  was  a  numerous  class  which  made  the 
rivers  the  fields  of  their  operations.  They  assumed 
the  guise  of  boatmen,  and  had  the  most  inviting  pas- 


THAGI.  251 

senger  boats  at  the  ghats  of  various  towns.  Con- 
federates, pretending  to  be  respectable  travelers,  took 
to  the  roads  in  the  vicinity,  and  endeavored  to  draw 
customers  to  their  partners'  crafts  by  tactics  similar  to 
those  employed  by  the  inveiglers  upon  the  road. 
Arrived  at  a  favorable  place  on  the  river,  the  Thags 
would  set  upon  the  genuine  passengers,  strangle  them, 
and  having  broken  their  spines  as  a  precaution  against 
resuscitation,  throw  them  overboard.  The  boat  would 
then  proceed,  to  the  next  ghat,  as  though  nothing 
unusual  had  happened,  first  landing  their  inveiglers  to 
procure  fresh  victims. 

Certain  classes  and  castes  were  exempt  from  the 
attacks  of  these  miscreants.  For  instance,  it  was 
deemed  unlucky  to  kill  washermen  and  poets,  oil- 
vendors  and  musicians,  blacksmiths  and  carpenters, 
Ganges  water-carriers  and  maimed  men.  As  a  rule, 
a  Tliag  would  not  take  the  life  of  a  woman,  but  where 
the  prospect  of  excessive  booty  neutralized  their 
repugnance  to  the  act,  iMusalmans  were  required  to 
perform  the  deed  from  which  the  Hindu  Thag  shrank. 
Tiie  sacred  cow  brought  immunity  to  its  possessor,  but 
if  he  could  be  persuaded  to  part  with  it,  which  might 
generally  be  accomplished  by  a  liberal  offer,  he  was 
no  longer  considered  a  privileged  person. 

When  an  entire  caravan,  or  party,  of  merchants 
was  murdered,  the  booty  secured  would  often  be 
very  large  ;  but  usually  the  value  of  the  property 
obtained  was  comparatively  small,  and   no  apparent 


252  INDIA. 

degree  of  poverty  was  a  protection.  In  his  confes- 
sion, a  Thag  stated  that  the  faet  of  having  absolutely 
noHiing  Avould  exempt  a  man  from  attack,  but  the 
possession  of  two  pice — less  than  a  cent — was  sufficient 
incentive  to  murder  him.  In  dividing  the  proceeds 
of  a  robbery,  a  portion  was  set  apart  for  the  raja 
under  whose  protection  the  gang  lived  ;  a  portion  was 
assigned  to  religious  purjwses,  and  the  remainder 
divided  among  the  members  of  the  gang,  according  to 
an  established  scale. 

Doctor  Spry  thus  describes  the  execution  of  a  party 
of  Thags  which  he  witnessed  : 

"  The  gibbets  were  temporary  erections,  marking 
three  sides  of  a  square.  The  upright  posts  which 
supjx)rted  the  cross-beams  were  firmly  fixed  in  stone 
masonry  five  feet  in  height.  From  either  side  of 
these  Avails,  foot-boards  were  placed,  on  which  the  un- 
happy criminals  Avere  to  land  on  reaching  the  top  of 
the  ladder.  The  cross-beams  Avere  each  provided 
Avith  ten  running  halters.  As  each  hackery-load  of 
malefactors  arriA'ed,  it  A\'as  taken  to  the  foot  of  the 
respectiA'e  ladders,  and  as  one  by  one  got  out,  he 
mounted  to  the  platform  or  foot-board.  Their  leg- 
irons  Avere  not  removed. 

"All  this  time  the  air  Avas  pierced  Avith  the  hoarse 
and  hollow  shoutings  of  these  Avretched  men.  Each 
man,  as  he  reached  the  top  of  the  ladder,  stepped  out 
on  the  platform,  and  Avalked  at  once  to  a  halter. 
Without  loss  of  time,  he  tried  its  strength  by  Aveighing 


THAGL  253 

liis  whole  body  on  it.  Every  one  having  by  this 
means  proved  the  strength  of  his  rope  with  his  own 
hands  (for  none  of  them  was  handenifed),  he  introduced 
his  head  into  the  noose,  drew  the  knot  firmly  home 
behind  the  right  ear,  and,  amid  terrific  cheers,  jumped 
off  the  board  and  launched  himself  into  eternity. 

"  Thus,  in  the  moment  of  death,  we  see  a  scrupu- 
lous attention  paid  to  the  preservation  of  caste.  To 
wait  to  be  hanged  by  the  hand  of  a  chumar  was  a 
thought  too  revolting  for  endurance.  The  name 
would  be  disgraced  forever,  and  therefore,  rather 
than  submit  to  this  degradation,  every  man  hanged 
himself." 

Doctor  Spry  furnished  certain  British  phrenologists 
with  some  skulls  of  Thags.  The  result  of  the  exami- 
nations, Avhich  was  published  in  the  "  Phrenological 
Journal,"  is  interesting,  and  coincides  closely  with  the 
deductions  arrived  at  by  those  who  had  the  oppor- 
tunity to  observe  the  characters  of  this  peculiar 
class. 

"One  peculiarity  is,  that  destructiv^eness  is  not  a 
predominant  organ  in  any  of  them ;  and  yet  they  are 
murderers.  This  fact,  although  it  might  appear  to  a 
superficial  observer  in  opposition  to  their  character,  is 
in  reality  perfectly  consistent  with  it.  "When  destruc- 
tiveness  is  the  predominant  organ  in  the  head  of  an 
individual,  he  delights  in  taking  away  life  from 
'  ruffian  thirst  for  blood  ' ;  but  the  Thags  murdered 
obviously  for  the   sake  of  robbing,   and    under   the 


254  INDIA. 

influence  of  other  motives  immediately  to  be  ex- 
j)laine(l  ;  and,  i\ho,  because  tliey  had  been  trained  to 
tliis  mode  of  life  from  infancy.  The  skulls  show  that 
combination  of  large  organs  of  the  animal  propensi- 
ties, with  comparatively  moderate  organs  of  the  moral 
sentiments,  which  predisjxtses  individuals  to  any  mode 
of  self-gratificati(m,  witliout  restraining  them  by 
regard  to  the  rights  and  welfare  of  others.  The 
Thags  belong  to  the  class  of  characters  in  which 
would  be  placed  the  captains  and  crews  of  slave  ships, 
and  also  the  more  desperate  among  soldiers  ;  that  is 
to  say,  men  who  individually  are  not  quite  so  prone 
to  cruelty  that  they  would  of  themselves  have  em- 
barked in  a  murderous  enterprise  unsolicited,  but 
Avho,  when  temptiition  is  presented  to  them,  feel  little 
or  no  compunction  in  yielding  to  it.  Circumstances 
more  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  the  lower  feelings 
and  unfavorable  for  the  strengthening  of  benevolence 
and  conscientiousness  than  those  of  the  Thags  it  is 
impossible  to  conceive  ;  even  veneration  and  love  of 
approbation,  which,  when  rightly  directed,  serve  to 
regulate  the  selfish  feelings,  are  here  rendered  the 
prompters  of  destructiveness  and  acquisitiveness." 
Doctor  Spry  states  that  many  boys  go  on  the  road  as 
Tliags  because  their  fathers  did,  and  not  from  any 
inherent  ferocity  of  disposition.  The  influence  of  the 
])riests  is  very  great  in  leading  to  the  enormities 
detailed  by  Doctor  Spry.  "  Nor  is  it  at  all  surprising 
that  the  authority  of  men  looked  up  to  with  awe  for 


THAGI.  255 

their  promises  of  eternal  felicity  should  be  very 
influential  in  giving  life  and  vigor  to  the  animal 
propensities." 

The  love  of  approbation  is  a  ix)\verful  stimulant  to 
the  atrocities  of  the  Thags.  In  a  published  letter, 
Captain  Sleeman,  to  whom  was  first  entrusted  the  task 
of  suppressing  Thagi,  says,  "After  a  man  has  passed 
through  the  different  grades,  and  shown  that  he  has 
acquired  sufficient  dexterity — or  what  we  may  call 
nerve  or  resolution,  and  which  they  call  niard-breasted- 
ness ' — to  strangle  a  victim  himself,  the  priest  on  a 
certain  day,  before  all  the  gang  assembled,  before 
they  set  out  on  their  criminal  expeditions,  presents 
him  with  the  angoclia  or  riimal  (the  handkerchief  with 
which  the  strangling  is  performed),  tells  him  how  to 
use  it,  how  much  his  friends  expect  from  his  courage 
and  conduct,  and  implores  the  goddess  to  vouchsafe 
her  support  to  his  laudable  ambition  and  endeavors 
to  distinguish  himself  in  her  service.  The  investiture 
of  the  rumal  is  knighthood  to  these  monsters;  it  is 
the  highest  oljject  of  their  ambition,  not  only  because 
the  man  who  strangles  lias  so  nuicli  a  head  over  and 
above  the  share  which  falls  to  him  in  the  division 
of  the  spoils,  but  because  it  implies  the  recognition 
by  his  comrades  of  the  qualities  of  courage,  strength 
and  dexterity,  which  all  are  anxious  to  be  famed 
for." 

If  we  incjiiire  why  the  ])riests  should  have  fostered 
so  abominable  an    institution  as   Tliagf,   we  find    ilie 


256  INDIA. 

iiioti\'e  to  be  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  Sati — unscru- 
pulous avarice.  In  both  cases  the  priests  profited 
directly  and  invariably  by  the  crime.  So  they  led  the 
widow  to  the  pyre,  or  sent  the  Thag  upon  the  road 
with  a  benediction,  and  pocketed  the  price  of  blood 
without  compunction. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE    HIMALAYAS,    DARjfLING,    KANCHANJANGA, 
SENCHAL. 

The  railroad  has  brought  the  "hills/'  as  the  Anglo- 
Indian  styles  the  Himalayas,  within  tvventy-four^hours 
of  Calcutta,  and  the  civilian  from  the  capital  can  "run 
up  to  Darjiliug"  with  almost  as  much  ease  as  the  New 
Yorker  takes  a  trip  to  the  Adirondacks. 

Darjiling  is  due  north  of  Calcutta  about  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles.  Half-way,  a  break  as  made  at 
the  passage  of  the  Ganges,  a  distance  of  thirteen 
miles,  by  a  steam  ferry,  or,  in  the  dry  season,  over 
temporary  rails  laid  upon  the  sandy  bed  of  the 
river.  Each  bank  is  the  terminus  of  a  distinct  rail- 
way line,  but  so  great  are  the  fluvial  changes  that 
it  has  been  impracticable  to  establish  permanent  ter- 
minal stations ;  indeed,  the  frequent  variations  in  the 
course  of  the  river  have  necessitated  corresponding 
changes  in  the  positions  of  the  stations  and  reconstruc- 
tion of  tracks  at  great  expense  and  inconvenience.  At 
Slliguri  another  distinct  stage  in  the  journey  is  readied. 
This  is  a  dividing  line  between  opjiosite  conditions, 
things  and  people.  Behind,  the  hot,  flat  plains,  and 
Vol.  I.— 17  257 


258  INDIA. 

tho  effete,  impassible  Bengali ;  before,  the  cool  ridges 
of  the  lower  elevations  of  the  Himalayan  system  and 
the  energetic,  sensitive  hillmen.  From  this  point  the 
purple  peaks  of  the  highest  elevations  loom  up  above 
the  clouds,  rising  tier  upon  tier,  in  jagged  light  and 
shadow,  to  the  snow  line. 

The  final  fifty  miles  are  accomplished  on  the  Hima- 
layan Railway.  A  little  train  of  four  or  five  o[)en 
cars,  drawn  by  a  diminutive  engine,  upon  a  two-foot 
gauge,  reminding  one  foi'cibly  of  a  c-hild's  toy,  makes 
the  arduous  ascent  to  Darjiling  in  eight  hours. 

Before  reaching  the  fot)t-hills  the  rail  traverses  tiie 
Terai,  that  belt  of  fever-infested  forest  that  defies  the 
attempts  of  man,  be  he  native  or  European,  to  make 
a  settlement  in  it.  Occasional  clearings,  with  de- 
serted tea  plantations  and  collapsing  bungalows,  attest 
to  the  futile  eflPorts  which  have  been  made  to  gain  a 
footing  here.  The  few  sparse  aboriginal  tribes,  which 
share  the  deepest  recesses  of  these  forests  with  the 
Avild  beasts,  appear,  however,  to  be  immune  to  the 
deadly  Terai  malaria.  Time  was  when  right  royal 
sport  could  be  had  in  the  Terai,  esj^ecially  over 
towards  the  Nepal  frontier.  Before  the  advent  of  the 
British  shikari,  the  tiger's  life  in  the  forest  districts 
Mas  one  long  round  of  almost  uninterrupted  festivity. 
He  levied  contributions  upon  the  villages  without 
check,  and  so  easy  and  plentiful  was  the  supply  that 
his  predations  ceased  to  be  regulated  by  his  needs, 
and  he  learned  to  kill  in  pure  wantonness.     When  at 


Railroad  over  Ghats — Khandalla 


THE  HIMALAYAS.  239 

length  he  became  too  old  and  fat  and  lazy  to  prey 
upon  the  herds  and  flocks,  he  found  easier  victims 
among  the  less  subtle  and  active  villagers  themselves. 
A  single  man-eater  is  known  to  have  killed  on  an 
average  eighty  persons  a  year  during  a  considerable 
jjeriod.  Another  caused  the  inhabitants  of  thirteen 
villages  to  abandon  them,  and  to  allow  two  hundred 
and  fifty  square  miles  of  cultivated  land  to  relapse 
into  jungle.  A  third  killed  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  coolies  employed  in  the  construction  of  a  public 
road,  and  put  a  stop  to  the  work  until  a  distant 
English  magistrate  found  time  to  come  out  and  deal 
with  him  officially. 

In  the  time  of  Sir  Roger  Martin,  a  famous  man- 
eater  terrorized  a  large  area  of  the  Nepal  Terai.  He 
once  entered  the  hut  of  a  Tarn,  who  dealt  him  such  a 
heavy  blow  on  the  forehead  with  an  axe  that  the  scar, 
which  he  displayed  ever  afterwards,  rendered  his 
identification  an  easy  matter.  The  depredations  of 
this  beast  became  so  serious  that  Sir  Roger  deter- 
mined to  hunt  him  down.  He  shot  forty-eight  tigers 
before  he  encountered  "  Le  Balafre "  himself,  who 
justified  his  reputation  for  ferocity  by  fighting  to  the 
last  breath. 

The  ascent  is  almost  cliff-like  in  its  abruptness. 
From  three  hundred  feet  above  sea-level  the  railway 
climbs  in  the  next  thirty  miles  or  so  to  an  altitude  of 
seven  thousand  feet.  In  the  course  of  a  few  hours 
the  climate  passes  through  various  gradations  from 


260  INDIA. 

tropical  to  almost  frigid,  with  corrcspoiKling  changes 
in  the  vegetiitiou  and  animal  life.  The  train  pro- 
ceeds along  the  winding  cart-road  at  the  convenient 
rate  of  eight  or  ten  miles  an  hour.  The  tall,  straight 
sal,  entwined  about  by  bright-blossomed  creepers, 
stand  thick  upon  the  slopes,  wdiich  are  covered  with  a 
dense  foliage  of  ferns  and  vines.  Parties  of  hill 
people,  small  of  stature  and  with  Mongolian  features, 
pass,  singing  or  chatting  in  animated  fashion  ;  the 
women  in  bright  skirts  and  shawls,  with,  perhaps,  an 
infant  suspended  at  the  back  in  a  basket,  the  weight 
being  sustained  by  a  strap  which  is  passed  across  the 
forehead.  The  men  carry  their  burdens  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  plainsman's  method  of  balancing  his 
load  upon  his  head  would  be  impracticable  in  these 
rough  mountain  paths.  Eagles  and  hawks  circle 
overhead,  and  now  and  again  a  startled  monkey 
or  deer  springs  to  fresh  cover.  Beautiful  birds  and 
brilliant  butterflies  flit  through  the  air.  Wild  flowers, 
which  here  include  orchids,  begonias,  cannas  and 
other  species  that  in  America  are  cultivated  with 
care,  abound  in  these  hills,  and  are  lavishly  used  by 
the  peasantry  for  personal  adornment. 

Anon  the  train  enters  the  temperate  zone  of  the 
mountain  range.  Oak,  chestnut,  maple,  cherry, 
willow  and  other  familiar  trees  become  prominent 
features  of  the  landscape.  The  extravagant  under- 
growth of  the  lower  slopes  gives  place  to  grass  and  less 
luxuriant  vegetation.     The  strawberry  and  the  rasp- 


DARJILING.  261 

berry,  the  bramble  and  the  brier,  appear  in  company 
with  the  homely  weed.  At  Kurseong,  fiv^e  thousand 
feet  above  sea-level,  the  tea  belt  is  entered.  The 
clearings,  with  their  symmetrical  rows  of  shrubs,  have 
a  strangely  incongruous  appearance  in  the  midst  of 
nature  so  wild  and  unrestrained. 

Par) fling  stands  at  an  elevation  of_seven  thousand 
feet  upon  the  summit  of  a  ridge  which  projects  into 
an  enormous  valley  of  stupendous  depth,  along  whose 
bottom  runs  the  Ranjit  River,  overshadowed  by  the 
colossal  ranks  of  the  Himalayan  peaks.  It  is  essen- 
tially a  hill  town;  more  so  than  Simla,  because  there  the 
infusion  of  natives  from  the  plains  is  greater,  and  the 
European  is  only  a  temporarily  transplanted  city  man  ; 
but  here  the  Englishman,  by  constant  residence,  imbibes 
something  of  the  air  and  manner  of  the  mountaineer, 
and  the  native  inhabitants  are  true  sons  of  the  hills — 
brawny  and  buoyant,  bright-eyed  and  quick  of  speech. 
It  is  a  very  complete  little  town,  too,  with  its  churches 
and  convents,  missions  and  schools,  hospitals  and 
sanitariums,  public  buildings  and  theatre,  markets 
and  bazaars,  cricket  ground  and  lawn  tennis  courts. 

The  cantonment  and  depot  for  convalescent  soldiers 
are  at  Jalapahar,  in  the  southern  section,  adjoining  the 
territory  of  the  Raja  of  Bardwan.  Twenty-five 
years  ago  the  rdja  was  a  thoroughly  Anglicised 
young  fellow,  fresh  from  Oxford,  who  created  a  scjnsa- 
tion  in  Calcutta  by  importing  the  first  coaching  turn- 
out that  had  been  seen  in  the  city. 


2(52  INDIA. 

The  great  Bazaar  in  the  middle  of  the  town  pre- 
sents an  attractive  jjicture,  full  of  life  and  color  ou 
Sunday,  which  is  a  kind  of  gala  day  with  the  natives 
hereabouts.  Its  streets  are  well  nigh  choked  with 
the  mass  of  mixed  humanity  that  fills  them.  Here 
are  almost  as  many  different  types  of  the  human 
race  as  one  will  find  in  the  busy  marts  of  the  plain 
cities,  and  representatives  of  races  that  are  seldom 
seen  away  from  their  native  hills. 

They  come  from  the  neighboring  hamlets  in  thou- 
sands, tricked  out  in  all  the  finery  of  gorgeous  cloth- 
ing and  massive  jewelry.  These  people  turn  all  their 
money  into  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  and  hang  them 
upon  their  women.  A^Tien  rupees  are  not  used  to 
purchase  ornaments,  they  are  strung  together  and 
converted  into  a  necklace ;  so  that  one  will  sometimes 
see  a  Nepali  woman  with  forty  or  fifty  rupees 
around  her  neck.  Her  husband  is  a  bright,  sturdy, 
gesticulating,  talkative  little  fellow  who  Avorks  well, 
and  earns  good  wages  on  a  tea  plantation.  In  strik- 
ing contrast  to  the  last  is  the  subdued  and  melancholy- 
looking  Lepcha,  whose  lean  form,  timid  bearing 
and  long,  plaited  hair  convey  an  impression  of 
effeminacy  which  is  not  altoo-ether  foreijrn  to  the 
truth.  Perhaps  he  is  saddened  by  the  latter-day 
invasion  of  his  native  country,  bringing  with  it  a  life 
too  strenuous  and  too  artificial  for  his  indolent,  nature- 
loving  disposition.  He  has  brought  to  market  some 
butterflies  and  orchids,  or,  it  may  be,  honey,  and  he 


DARJILING.  263 

will  return  to  his  jungle  haunts  with  a  supply  of  the 
salt  which  is  his  greatest  necessity.  A  very  diiferent 
type  is  the  swash-buckling  Bhotiya,  muscular  and 
intractable,  whose  women  are  almost  as  big-boned 
and  ill-featured  as  himself.  The  Tibetan  is  very 
much  in  evidence,  with  his  pigtail,  Chinese  hat  and 
tunic,  the  sleeves  al\va3's  turned  back  to  show  the 
contrasting  lining.  Numbers  of  them  dash  about  on 
their  brawny  little  ponies,  which  somewhat  resemble 
the  shaggy  Shetland.  Here  and  there  one  sees  a 
lama,  in  cherry-coloi-ed  gown  and  conical  cap,  with 
rosary  in  one  hand  and  prayer-wheel  in  the  other, 
mumbling  his  mterminable  Ave,  which  takes  the  form 
of  "Hail  to  the  jewel  in  the  lotus!"  These  are 
what  may  be  called  the  indigenous  types,  but  there 
is  a  sprinkling  of  foreign  elements:  Parsi  shojikeepers, 
Kabuli  and  Kashmiri  traders,  Madras!  and  Bengali 
servants,  and  Marwari  baniyas.  An  infinite  variety 
of  goods  are  exposed  for  sale  in  the  shops  and  stalls, 
•  and  upon  the  ground  along  every  approach  to  the 
Bazaar.  It  is  curious  to  see  "Oriental"  designs  in 
Manchester  muslins  and  Birmingham  bangles  selling 
in  the  land  of  their  origin.  The  sight  conveys  an 
obvious  moral. 

In  the  cemetery  near  by  is  a  tomb  erected  by  the 
Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  over  the  remains  of  the 
heroic  Hungarian  Csoma,  who  devoted  his  brief  life 
to  the  effort  of  discovering  the  original  home  of  his 
race  in  Central  Asia.     A  penniless  youth,  he  made 


HCA  INDIA. 

liis  way  on  foot  through  Asia  ]\Iinor  to  Tibet,  suffer- 
ing extraordinary  har(lshi])s  meanwhile.  He  passed 
several  years  in  the  seclusion  of  a  Tibetan  monastery, 
engaged  in  the  compilation  of  his  great  Dictionary 
and  Grammar  of  the  Tibetan  language,  a  masterly 
work  which  will  perpetuate  his  name. 

The  cliief,  indeed  almost  the  sole  industry  of 
Darjiling,  is  the  cultivation  of  tea.  The  plant  is  not 
indigenous  to  India,  although  early  travelers  mistook 
a  somewhat  similar  shrub  for  it.  The  tea  plant, 
which  belongs  to  the  species  Camelia,  grows  wild  in 
Assam,  where  it  sometimes  attains  the  dimensions  of 
a  large  tree,  and  whence  it  is  believed  to  have  found 
its  way  into  China  at  a  remote  date.  After  the 
annexation  of  Assam,  the  scientific  culture  of  the 
plant  was  commenced  in  that  country  under  Govern- 
ment supervision,  and  in  1839  the  Assam  Tea  Com- 
pany, which  is  at  present  the  largest  in  British  India, 
was  formed.  In  1855  tea  culture  was  introduced  to 
Darjiling,  where  there  are  now  two  hundred  planta- 
tions, covering  fifty  thousand  acres  of  ground,  and 
producing  over  eight  millions  of  pounds  of  the 
finished  leaf  annually.  The  success  of  this  experi- 
ment led  to  the  introduction  of  the  plant  to  other 
parts  of  India ;  but  it  is  not  believed  that  all  the 
localities  suitable  to  its  growth  have  yet  been  tried. 
A  ready  market  at  profitable  figures  is  found  for  all 
the  tea  that  the  Indian  gardens  can  produce,  and 
large  areas  are  now  in  cultivation  in  widely  scattered 


DARJILING.  265 

territories — "at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal;  in 
Chittngong  District;  side  by  side  with  coffee  on  the 
Neilgherri  Hills;  on  the  forest-clad  slopes  of  Chutiil 
Nagpur;  amid  the  low-lying  jungle  of  the  Bhutan 
Dwars,  and  even  in  Arakan."  The  comparatively 
recent  failure  of  the  coffee  crops  in  Ceylon  led  the 
planters  to  turn  their  attention  to  tea,  the  production 
of  which  is  now  a  thriving  industry  of  the  island. 
In  18 90-' 91  the  exports  of  tea  by  sea  from  India 
amounted  to  110,194,819  pounds,  valued  at  Rx 5,504,- 
293,  which  figures  take  no  account  of  the  large 
quantity  consumed  in  the  country,  and  the  consider- 
able amount  carried  over  caravan  routes. 

Three  distinct  varieties  of  the  tea  plant  are  culti- 
vated in  India.  Assam  produces  a  high-priced 
leaf,  yielding  a  strong  liquor  ;  but  which  is 
difficult  to  raise.  China,  originally  imported  from 
that  countiy,  is  a  low,  bushy  shrub,  very  dis- 
similar in  appearance  to  the  tree-like  plant  of 
Assamese  origin.  Its  leaf  compares  unfavorably 
with  that  of  the  latter  in  tlie  matter  of  strength  and 
out-turn  Y>er  acre.  The  third  variety  is  a  hybrid 
produced  by  crossing  the  two  other  species.  It 
combines  the  properties  and  characteristics  of  both 
in  modified  degrees,  and  being  susceptible  of  the  best 
results  commercially,  is  in  greatest  favor  with  the 
planter. 

The  best  soil  fi)r  the  growth  of  the  plant  is  virgin 
forest  land,  rich  in  the  decomposed  vegetable  waste  of 


26G  INDIA. 

ages,  so  lying  that  tlic  tiH^pieal  torrents  will  neither 
■wash  away  the  fertile  deposit,  uor  stand  upon  it. 

The  Darjiling  plantations  have  an  elevation  com- 
manding a  temperate  climate,  and  a  situation  sheltered 
by  the  Himdlayan  ranges  I'rom  the  cold  blasts  of  the 
north.  On  the  summit  of  the  slope  is  the  neat 
bungalow  of  the  planter,  consisting  of  one  story, 
surrounded  by  a  veranda,  and  thatched  and  white- 
Avashod.  Below  are  the  quarters  of  the  coolies,  and 
the  garden,  with  its  shrubs  arranged  in  lines  of 
mathematical  precision. 

When  new  land  is  brought  under  cultivation,  the 
jungle  is  cut  down  in  December,  and  burned  on  the 
spot  two  months  later.  The  ground  is  then  harrowed, 
and  staked  out  for  the  seedlings  at  a  distance  of  four 
feet  apart.  The  plant  is  invariably  raised  from  a 
seed,  which  in  bulk  and  general  appearance  resembles 
a  hazel-nut.  The  seed  is  sown  in  carefully  prepared 
soil  during  the  months  of  December  and  January, 
and  the  young  plants  are  reared  under  shade.  From 
April  until  July  the  process  of  transplanting  is  carried 
on.  During  the  first  two  years  the  chief  labor  on 
the  plantation  is  directed  toward  killing  the  weeds, 
w^hich  vigorously  contest  possession  of  the  soil  with 
the  young  plant.  As  the  shrubs  grow  older,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  prune  them  liberally  each 
autumn.  The  cuttings  are  deposited  round  the  roots 
to  serve  as  manure.  The  plants  begin  to  yield  in 
their  third  year,  and  increase  year  by  year  in   pro- 


DARJILING.  267 

duction  until  their  tenth  season.  The  different 
varieties  of  leaf  are  not,  as  is  commonly  believed, 
the  growth  of  different  varieties  of  the  shrub,  but 
are  pickings  from  the  same  plant  at  different  times, 
and  under  different  conditions.  These  pickings,  called 
"  flushes,"  consist  of  successive  buds,  flowers  and 
leaves,  which  make  their  first  appearance  with  the 
advent  of  the  rainy  term. 

The  productive  season,  which  extends  from  March 
to  November,  is  counted  upon  for  six  or  seven  full 
flushes  of  leaf.  The  bushes  are  picked  by  women 
and  children,  and  the  leaves  carried  to  the  factory, 
where  the  process  of  manufacture  is  immediately 
commenced.  The  leaves  are  spread  loosely  upon 
trays,  or  mats,  to  "  wither."  This  preliminary  process 
may  be  completed  in  twelve  or  fourteen  hours  within 
the  building,  but  sometimes  it  becomes  necessary  to 
expose  the  leaf  to  the  sun  or  to  artificial  heat.  The 
next  operation  consists  of  twisting,  or  compressing, 
the  leaves  into  a  spherical  form,  which  is  effected 
generally  by  machinery,  but  sometimes  by  manual 
labor.  The  fermentation,  which  has  been  set  up 
during  the  process  of  "rolling,"  is  noAV  arrested  by 
drying,  usually  performed  through  the  medium  of 
machiner}\  Under  ordinary  conditions  less  than 
five  hours  will  have  elapsed  from  tlie  time  that  the 
leaves  were  Avithered  until  they  are  ready  for  the 
hand  sieves.  In  this,  the  final  stage  of  actual  manu- 
facture, the  output  is  sorted  into  the  various  grades, 


208  INDIA. 

ningiiig  iu  order  of  value  from  Flowery  Pekoe  to 
Broken  Congou,  after  which  it  only  remains  to  pack 
the  tea  in  chests  for  shipment. 

The  tea  planters  have  to  contend  with  a  blight, 
which  sometimes  shrivels  up  the  leaf  upon  the  shrub. 
This  is  due  to  parasitical  insects,  which  suck  the  sap 
from  the  young  plants.  More  than  once  an  invasion 
of  locusts  has  swept  over  the  district,  leaving  the 
plants  bare.  They  swarm  in  myriads,  obscuring  the 
sun,  and  covering  the  ground  in  places  two  or  three 
inches  deep.  The  Xepalis  deem  the  insect  a  great 
luxury,  and  eat  it  raw. 

In  1889  a  plague  of  locusts  occurred.  The  insects 
overspread  the  Avhole  of  India,  doing  immense  damage 
to  the  crops.  Every  possible  means  was  employed 
to  check  their  devastations,  and  rewards  were  offered 
for  their  extermination.  At  one  station  alone  twenty- 
two  tons  of  them  were  killed  in  a  single  day. 

Darjiling  is  on  the  border  of  Sikkim,  where  the 
Himalayas  present  their  grandest  aspects,  and  where 
the  most  favorable  view-points  are  available.  Mount 
Everest  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  distant  i 
but  nowhere  can  a  good  view  of  that,  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  world,  be  obtained,  on  account  of 
the  cluster  of  lofty  peaks  which  closely  beset  it. 
Kanchanjanga  lies  forty  miles  due  north  of  Darjiling, 
and  its  height  is  not  diminished,  nor  its  individuality 
impaired,  in  the  same  manner.  If  one  considers  the 
difficulty  in  viewing  a  modern  office  building  from  a 


Panorama  of  Darjiling' 


«at.ir";k- "  r^* 


KANCHANJANGA.  269 

point  within  two  or  three  blocks  of  its  base,  it  will 
readily  be  understood  that  forty  miles  is  a  favorable 
distance  from  which  to  survey  a  five-mile  elevation. 
Senchal,  which  is  fifteen  hundred  feet  higher  than 
Darjiling,  is  the  most  convenient  station  for  the 
spectator.  The  panorama  embraces  a  score,  or  more, 
of  peaks  exceeding  twenty  thousand  feet  in  height, 
with  Mount  Everest  away  over  at  the  western  point 
of  the  spur,  which  runs  at  right  angles  to  the  range 
containing  Kanchanjanga. 

Major  Waddell  gives  a  fine  description  of  this  hoary 
giant  as  he  aj^peared  at  the  dawn  of  a  clear  day : 

"Far  away  in  the  yet  dusky  sky,  and  at  an  amazing 
height,  a  rosy  peak  flashed  forth  for  an  instant,  and 
vanished  into  the  darkness.  This  was  the  summit 
of  Kanchen-junga.  It  reappeared  almost  immedi- 
ately, and  brighter  than  before,  in  the  rising  glow  of 
dawn,  which,  reflected  from  peak  to  peak,  streamed 
down  the  lower  pinnacles,  bathing  them  in  a  soft, 
rosy  light  that  faded  quickly  away  into  cold,  bluish 
gray,  and  left  the  snowy  ranges  a  sea  of  dull  sapphire 
peaks.  Then,  as  the  sun  shot  up  with  its  first  long, 
low  beams  glinting  on  the  highest,  and  then  in  quick 
succession  on  the  lower,  peaks,  these  dim  blue  crests 
and  crags  leaped  forward,  tipped  with  ruddy  gold 
and  splashed  with  fire,  which,  as  the  sun  rose  higher 
and  higher,  melted  away  in  the  distance  into  amber 
and  frosted  silver  against  a  turquoise  sky.  In  the 
full  flood  of  sunli<!:ht  these  snows  lost  most  of  their 


270  INDIA. 

broad  details  of  li.ij:lit  and  shade,  and  presented  an 
almost  uniform  chalky  whiteness  through  the  pearly 
haze.  Not  a  cloud  obscured  iJie  view.  Snowy 
mountains  stretched  round  almost  half  the  horizon, 
culminating  in  the  mighty  mass  of  Kanchen-junga, 
with  its  thirteen  thousand  feet  of  everlasting  snow, 
and  Everest  in  the  background. 

"  From  this  latter  peak,  rising  on  our  left  over 
the  dark  shoulder  of  Sandookphu,  the  crowning 
range  of  snowy  pyramids  extends  almost  continuously 
eastward  to  Janoo  and  Kabroo  (25,000  and  24,015 
feet  respectively)  on  the  flanks  of  Kanchen-junga 
(28,150  feet),  and  thence  far  away  to  the  silvery  cone 
of  the  Tibetan  Choomo-ilha-ri  (23,940  feet),  and  sinks 
in  the  eastern  snows  of  Bhotan  on  the  extreme  right. 
It  was  sublime !" 

"  Northwards  soared 
The  stainless  ramps  of  huge  Himala's  wall, 
Ranged  in  white  ranks  against  the  blue — untrod, 
Infinite,  wonderful— whose  uplands  vast, 
And  lifted  universe  of  crest  and  crag, 
Shoulder  and  shelf,  green  slope  and  icy  horn, 
Riven  ravine  and  splintered  precipice. 
Led  climbing  thought  higher  and  higher,  until 
It  seemed  to  stand  in  heaven  and  speak  with  God. 
Beneath  the  snows,  dark  forests  spread,  sharp  laced 
With  leaping  cataracts  and  veiled  with  clouds ; 
Lower  grew  rose,  oaks  and  the  great  fir  groves. 
Where  echoed  pheasants'  call  and  panthers'  cry, 
Clatter  of  wild  sheep  on  the  stones,  and  scream 
Of  circling  eagles.     Under  these,  the  plain 
Gleamed  like  a  prayer-carpet  at  the  foot 
Of  these  divinest  altars." 


RANCH  AN  JANGA.  271 

"  The  vastness  of  this  view — vast  beyond  that  of 
any  other  spot  of  earth,  perhaps — is  almost  oppres- 
sive. In  every  direction  the  eye,  as  it  s\\ecps  the 
horizon,  traverses  some  hundreds  of  miles  of  the  earth's 
surface  ;  and  from  the  deep  gulf  of  the  silvery  Ranjit 
River,  flowing  seven  thousand  feet  beneath  our  feet, 
great  masses  of  dark,  forest-clad  mountains  rise  tier 
over  tier,  carrying  the  eye  up  to  the  majestic  snows, 
with  the  graceful  Kanchen-junga,  towering  up  twenty- 
seven  thousand  feet  above  the  river,  in  the  foreground. 
Thus,  at  one  glhnce,  we  see  an  elevation  of  the  earth's 
surface  of  considerably  over  five  miles  in  vertical  height. 
As  if  we  were  to  imagine  Mont  Blanc  rearing  its  full 
height  abruptly  from  the  seashore,  bearing  upon  its 
summit  Ben  Nevis — the  highest  mountain  in  Great 
Britain — and,  above  all  that,  two  Snowdons,  one  on 
the  top  of  the  other,  and  were  able  with  one  glance 
to  take  in  all  tUese  four  superposed  mountains. 

"  The  surpassing  height  of  these  Himalayas  may 
be  realized  by  comparison  with  the  peaks  of  the  Alps 
of  Europe.  None  of  the  latter  peaks  exceed  15,780 
feet,  and  only  six  or  seven  are  above  14,000  feet; 
while  the  Himalayas  have  several  peaks  over  28,000 
feet,  and  more  than  eleven  hundred  which  have  been 
measured  exceed  20,000  feet. 

"  So  enormous  indeed  is  tliis  great  projecting  mass 
of  the  Himalayas  that  physicists  have  sliown,  not 
only  that  it  draws  the  plumb-line  considerably 
towards  it,  but  that  it  so  attracts  the  sea  as  to  [)nll  tho 


272  INDIA. 

latter  several  hundred  feet  up  its  sides.  Yet  this 
faet  is  so  little  generally  known  that  most  sea  captains 
would  stare  were  you  to  t«ll  them  that  in  coming 
from  Ceylon  to  Calcutta  they  had  been  actually 
sailing  up  hill !" 

The  scene  thus  described  at  length  does  not  at 
first  impress  itself  in  all  its  fullness  upon  the  beholder. 
The  eye  and  the  mind  must  become  to  some  extent 
accustomed  to  the  wonderful  sight  before  its  grandeur 
and  immensity  are  adequately  appreciated.  Then, 
again,  the  varying  atmospheric  conditions  distort 
perspectives,  veil  certain  features,  or  throw  them  into 
high  relief,  and  create  constantly  changing  aspects. 

The  impression  created  by  these  stupendous  peaks 
from  a  distance  is  suggestive  of  peaceful  stillness  and 
silence.  This,  however,  is  the  reverse  of  their  actual 
condition.  Mr.  Hoffman,  who  ascended  Kanchan- 
janga  to  a  height  of  17,500  feet,  mentions  the  danger 
his  partv  incurred  from  "  the  huge  stones  that  were 
continually  falling  from  the  glaciers."  He  states  that 
"  the  rumbling  noise  of  the  avalanches  and  the  crash- 
ing of  falling  rocks  never  cease." 

Turning  with  the  inevitable  tendency  of  the  West- 
ern mind  to  look  for  signs  of  civilization  and  com- 
merce, one  sees  on  every  hand  along  the  lower  ranges, 
clearings  devoted  to  cultivation,  populous  villages 
and  thriving  marts  of  trade — all  connected  by  roads 
or  mountain  paths,  constructed  with  great  labor  and 
difficulty  and  subjected  to  the  danger  of  landslides. 


KANCHANJANGA.  273 

Here,  where  a  population  exceeding  a  quarter  of  a 
million  finds  profitable  employment,  in  an  environ- 
ment fiivorable  to  health  and  comfort,  sixty  years  ago 
was  an  uninterrupted  expanse  of  wild  forests  unin- 
habited by  man. 

At  intervals  an  avalanche  will  occur  of  such  tremen- 
dous proportions  as  to  change  the  configuration  of  a 
large  area  of  country.  JSInjor  AVaddell  cites  an  in- 
stance :  "  The  whole  side  of  a  great  mountain,  that 
towered  above  us  about  three  miles  to  our  left,  had 
broken  away  atid  come  thundering  down  some  six 
years  ago ;  and  the  rocky  avalanche  had  covered  the 
valley  for  many  miles  with  its  debris,  and  buried  sev- 
eral miles  of  forest  quite  out  of  sight,  leaving  only  a 
fringe  of  splintered  pines  projecting  from  its  borders. 
The  enormous  mass  of  these  fallen  rocks  had  thrust 
the  river  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley,  over  a  mile 
out  of  its  course,  and  had  dammed  up  its  waters  there, 
forming  a  lake.  This  is  a  common  way  in  which 
lakes  are  formed  in  the  Himalayas.  Instances  of  it 
are  to  be  found  in  the  case  of  the  lacustrine  valley  of 
Nepal,  and  in  tlie  lake  of  Naini  Tal,  and  in  the  tals 
or  lakes  in  its  vicinity.  And  such  lakes  thus  sud- 
denly formed,  and  having  at  their  outfall  no  rocky 
barriers  in  situ,  are  subject  to  (piite  as  sudden  disap- 
pearance. I  myself  witnessed  how  this  occurred  when 
traveling  in  the  Northwestern  Himalayas  in  1882. 
On  the  night  of  the  23d  of  August  of  that  year,  the 
sudden  pressure  of  water  from  the  flood  of  an  excessive 
Vol.  I.— is 


274  INDIA. 

raiiilall  burst  tliroiigh  the  outfall  dam  of  Bhim  Tttl, 
whose  waters  rushed  down  the  valley,  sweeping  away 
stretches  of  the  forest,  and  when  I  saw  the  lake  early 
next  morning  its  level  had  fallen  over  twenty  feet, 
leaving  the  greater  part  of  its  bed  a  muddy  plain." 

The  forisst  of  Rang-iroon,  on  the  northern  slopes  of 
Senehal,  is  typical  of  the  Himalayan  forest  where  it  is 
undisturbed  by  the  native  cultivator  or  the  European 
planter.  "  It  stretches  for  several  hundreds  of  square 
miles,  more  or  less  continuously,  from  the  top  of  Sen- 
ehal down  to  the  upper  limits  of  cultivation,  at  about 
six  thousand  feet.  Its  giant  oaks,  chestnuts  and  mag- 
nolias  are  thickly  draped  with  moss  and  wreaths  of 
aerial  orchids,  ferns  and  festooning  climbers  and  para- 
sitic plants,  which  hang  in  great  tufts  and  pendants, 
waving  over  the  blue  hydrangeas  of  the  undergrowth. 
Some  of  the  branches  of  these  trees  are  perfect  gar- 
dens in  themselves.  In  the  soft  drapery  of  moist 
moss  that  thickly  clothes  these  branches,  and  in  the 
beds  of  fine  mould  from  the  deeaving:  leaves  that  fill 
their  crevices,  are  to  be  found  not  only  luxuriant  clus- 
ters of  exquisite  orchids  and  many  kinds  of  other 
epiphytic  }>lants,  but  even  large,  Moody  shrubs  and 
evergreens,  with  a  variety  of  flowers  and  foliage.  A 
gorgeous  feature  of  the  forest  at  this  season  is  the 
blaze  of  crimson  blossoms  of  the  Ilagnolia  Campbelli, 
a  tree  which  has  just  flowered  for  the  first  time  in 
Europe.  Here,  in  its  home,  it  is  a  forest  monai-ch, 
over  eighty  feet  high,  and  its  huge  flowers,  like  those 


EANG-IROON.  275 

of  the  cotton  tree  below,  appear  curiously  on  its  bare 
branches  before  the  leaves.  AVhite  magnolias  also 
abound,  scenting  the  air  with  their  fragrance.  Deli- 
cately pink  hydrangeas  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  high 
are  common,  and  ferns  are  so  numerous  that  over 
sixty  species  may  be  found  along  this  forest  road 
within  a  few  miles.  The  number  and  variety  of 
orchids  is  remarkable.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  differ- 
ent kinds  were  found  by  Hooker  in  the  Khasia  Hills. 
Another  beautiful  native  of  these  mountains  is  the 
rhododendron,  whose  flowers  take  on  every  hue,  from 
bright  vermilion  to  milky  white,  and  whose  form 
varies  from  the  oak-like  tree  to  the  bushy  shrub  com- 
monly found  in  American  gardens." 

At  the  elevation  of  thirteen  thousand  feet,  which  the 
bamboo  and  kindred  grasses  do  not  reach,  trees  cease 
to  figure  in  the  landscape,  and  grass  becomes  scarce; 
but  there  are  numbers  of  flowers,  including  the  Edel- 
weiss in  abundance,  and  ample  evidence  that  in  the 
summer  the  uplands  must  be  covered  with  a  profusion 
of  brilliant  blossoms.  The  wild  rhubarb  grows  at  an 
elevation  of  fifteen  thousand  five  hundred  feet.  In  this, 
its  natural  habitat,  it  attains  a  height  of  four  feet  or  over. 

The  line  of  pcr})etual  snow  is  from  fifteen  thousand 
to  eighteen  thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  The  snow 
lies  throughout  the  winter  to  about  ten  thousand  feet, 
but  it  seldom  lasts  fi)r  more  than  a  few  days  at  lower 
ranges,  although  it  falls  amongst  these  mountains  as 
low  down  as  six  thousand  feet. 


270  INDIA. 

Of  course,  snakes  arc  ]>lentiful  in  the  forests.  They 
arc  of  a  great  many  varieties,  some  being  quite  harm- 
less. The  most  deadly  are  the  cobra,  the  krait  and 
the  little  mountain  \\y^r.  The  hillmen  add  their 
yearly  quota  to  the  total  tally  of  the  deaths  from 
snake-bites  in  India.  The  cobra  di  capello  accounts 
for  the  majority  of  these.  This  name  was  given  to  it 
by  the  Portuguese  on  account  of  the  hoodlike  erection 
it  is  able  to  produce  by  the  expansion  of  the  skin  at 
the  back  of  the  head.  It  is  from  three  to  four  feet  in 
leno;th  and  about  four  inches  round  the  thickest  part. 
It  has  a  small,  flat  head,  covered  on  the  forepart  with 
large,  smooth  scales.  The  upper  portion  of  the  cobra 
is  light  brown,  and  its  belly  a  bluish-white  color, 
tinged  with  light  brown  or  yellow.  The  bite  of  a 
mature  cobra,  if  nothing  intercepts  the  complete  injec- 
tion of  the  poison,  is  incurable. 

It  is  believed  that  snakes  kill  over  twenty  thousand 
people  in  India  every  year,  despite  the  efforts  of  the 
Government  to  mitigate  the  evil.  Rewards  have  been 
offered  for  the  destruction  of  poisonous  serpents,  but 
without  very  satisfactory  results,  although  half  a  mil- 
lion and  more  have  been  killed  in  a  year.  It  is 
found  that  a  large  proportion  of  Hindus  hold  the 
cobra  sacred,  and  decline  to  harm  it,  even  when  it 
has  been  the  cause  of  death  to  their  cattle  or  children. 
ly  cases  where  no  religious  scruples  exist  against  destroy- 
ing the  reptiles,  natives  have  been  known  to  breed  them, 
in  order  to  gain  the  reward  with  a  minimum  labor. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    HIMALAYAS,    SIKKIM,    NEPAL. 

Darjiling  is  the  terminus  of  the  routes  of  ordi- 
Dary  travel  toward  the  north.  Few  Europeans  have 
penetrated  into'  the  mountains  of  Sikkim.  The  diffi- 
culties and  dangers  of  this  wild  region  are  nearly  as 
great  as  they  were  when  Hooker  explored  it,  forty 
years  ago.  Since  then,  however,  the  Tibetans  have 
learned  a  little  more  respect  for  the  British,  and  there 
is  now  no  likelihood  of  the  traveler  being  molested  or 
imprisoned,  as  were  Hooker,  Campbell  and  many 
others,  so  long  as  he  is  careful  not  to  cross  the  border. 
The  Tibetans  are  extremely  suspicious  of  any  incur- 
sion to  their  territory,  and  guard  the  passes  jealously. 
A  foreigner,  black  or  white,  who  is  discovered  within 
their  boundaries  will  be  fortunate  if  nothing  worse 
befalls  him  than  rough  and  speedy  deportation.  There 
are  banditti  in  the  hills  of  Sikkim,  but  past  experience 
has  taught  them  that  the  white  man,  armed,  is  a  host 
in  himself,  and  liis  pack  coolies  are  generally  protected 
by  a  suffi(!ient  guard. 

The  people  inhabiting  the  mountains  and  upland 
valleys  of  Sikkim  are  of  Tibetan  origin.     Even  the 

277 


278  INDIA. 

Lepclias,  who  arc  regarded  as  aborigines,  came  from 
the  same  source.  A  degraded  form  of  Bhnddism  is 
the  universal  religion.  All  are  demon-worshipers, 
and  it  is  little  to  be  wondered  at  when  one  considers 
the  awful  aspects  of  Nature  and  the  fearful  phenomena 
with  which  they  are  acquainted.  There  is  not  a  town 
in  the  whole  State,  the  capital  being  no  more  than  a 
village  of  inconsiderable  size.  In  a  great  part  of  the 
country  the  climate  forces  the  inhabitants  to  seek 
different  levels  with  their  flocks  as  the  seasons  change, 
and  in  this  way  they  traverse  long  distances  each 
year. 

Although  it  is  beyond  the  beaten  tracks  of  travel — 
perhaps  largely  on  that  account — Sikkim  is  one  of  the 
most  interestino;  reo:ions  within  the  confines  of  British 
India.  Its  scenery,  its  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and 
its  peoples,  have  no  counterparts  in  the  peninsula.  No 
doubt  the  chief  deterrent  to  travel  in  this  country  is 
the  great  expense  and  trouble  involved  by  it.  Almost 
all  the  food  to  be  consumed  must  be  carried ;  for 
little,  and  even  that  is  uncertain,  can  be  obtained  in 
the  interior.  Indeed,  it  is  necessary  to  establish  com- 
missariat depots  in  advance  along  the  route.  Tents, 
bedding,  cooking  utensils  and  a  number  of  other 
necessary  articles  of  equipment  must  be  provided ; 
and  all  this  mass  of  baggage  has  to  be  carried  upon 
the  backs  of  porters,  for  the  roads  are  so  few  and  so 
bad,  that  no  other  method  of  transportation  is  prac- 
ticable.    In  fact,  the  usual  means  of  crossing  a  river 


SIKKIM.  270 

is  a  cane  suspension  bridge,  difficult  for  a  man  and 
utterly  impossible  for  a  beast  of  burden. 

Major  Waddell,  whose  graphic  descrijjtion  of  his 
journeyings  ''  Among  the  Himalayas "  has  been 
freely  drawn  upon,  thus  describes  the  passage  of  the 
Tusta :  "  Spanning  the  yawning  chasm,  about  three 
hundred  feet  wide,  in  whose  depths  the  mighty  river 
thundered  along,  sixty  or  eighty  feet  beneath  us,  in 
leaping  waves,  dashing  over  great  boulders  of  gneiss 
the  size  of  cottages,  and  scattering  clouds  of  spray, 
and  hurling  upi'ootcd  trees  like  matchwood,  this  frail, 
rickety  structure  seemed  by  aspect  and  surroundings 
to  suggest  the  horrors  ascribed  by  the  ancients  to  the 
knife-edge  bridge  over  the  Styx.  And  we  had  to 
cross  it  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  Blondin  on  the 
slack  rope.  Here,  however,  we  had  the  doubtful 
advantage  of  a  loosely  knotted  rope  of  strips  of 
rotten  cane  to  clutch  hold  of;  for  the  bridge  is  formed 
of  two  suspended  ropes  of  cane  thrown  across  the 
gorge,  and  their  ends  are  lashed  to  rocks  and  trunks 
of  trees  in  the  neighborhood  ;  and  between  these,  two 
parallel  ropes,  and  tied  from  the  one  rope  to  the  other, 
at  intervals  of  a  yard  or  so,  are  suspended  bits  of 
cane,  forming  V-shaped  slings ;  and  in  the  narrow 
angle  of  these  V-slings  is  laid  a  line  of  bamboos,  end 
to  end,  on  which  you  have  to  find  your  footing.  It  is 
like  walking  on  a  rope ;  for  between  the  slings  it  is 
all  open  on  both  sides,  and  as  you  cross  you  swing 
in  mid-air.  ...  I  almost  shudder  even  now  to  tliink 


280  INDIA. 

of  tliat  awful  passage.  The  instant  you  step  on  these 
bridges  they  recoil  from  you,  and  swing  and  shake  in 
an  alarming  M'ay,  rolling  from  side  to  side,  and  pitch- 
ing with  every  step  you  take,  like  a  ship  in  a  storm. 
They  swerve  M'ith  a  sudden  jerk  every  time  you  lift 
your  foot,  not  only  sideways  and  longways,  but  also 
downwards  and  forwards,  as  your  weight  depresses 
tlie  bridge,  until  you  pass  the  middle,  when  the  oscil- 
lating structure  kicks  up  after  you  as  you  ascend.  So, 
seizing  the  two  suspension  cables,  one  in  either  hand, 
for  a  railing,  you  have  to  work  your  way  across  this 
jerky,  swinging,  shaking,  writhing  thing.  On  clear- 
ing the  bank,  the  instant  you  look  down  to  see  where 
to  place  your  feet,  the  rush  of  leaping  water  in  the 
deeply  sunk  torrent  beneath  you  gives  you  the  giddy 
sensation  that  both  you  and  the  bridge  are  running 
swiftly  up  stream.  Yet,  without  looking  down,  how 
is  it  possible  to  see  the  single  bamboo  overhanging 
the  abyss,  and  on  which  you  must  find  your  shaky 
footing,  and  to  miss  which  means  certain  death  ? 

"  Hitherto  the  line  of  bamboos  had  been  tied  end 
to  end,  but  now,  as  I  stepped  on  to  the  next  one,  it 
tilted  up,  and  I  could  see  that  most  of  those  in  front 
were  also  lying  loose  and  disjointed  in  their  widely- 
separated  V-slings,  and  some  also  of  these  slings  were 
loosened  and  others  wanting.  I  had  to  take  darting, 
furtive  peeps  at  the  slippery,  creaking  bamboo,  and 
after  each  step  I  had  to  half  close  my  eyes  for  an 
instant  to  counteract  the  giddy  feeling  of  the  upward 


SIKKIM.  281 

rush  of  the  bridge.  Ah,  it  was  a  creepy,  ghastly 
feeling  !  One  false  step  meant  instant  death  in  the 
raging  gulf  below.  Still  there  was  a  fascination  in  it 
all — suspended  at  that  giddy  height  over  the  rushing, 
swirling  waters  far  beneath,  the  unceasing,  deafening 
roar,  the  bold,  rocky  banks  and  the  rainbow  tints  of 
the  clouds  of  spray  rising  from  the  boiling  abyss 
below." 

There  are  but  a  few  weeks  in  the  year  when  this 
region  is  accessible  to  the  traveler — from  the  middle 
of  September  to  the  middle  of  November.  Before 
the  latter  date,  snow  begins  to  fall,  and  soon  the 
uplands  and  passes  are  inaccessible;  from  May  to 
September  heavy  rain  falls  almost  incessantly,  forming 
innumerable  torrents  and  causing  landslides. 

The  lower  ranges,  where  Nature  is  bountiful  and 
the  climate  comparatively  mild,  are  inhabited  by  the 
Lepchas,  whose  great  divergence  in  character  from 
their  Tibetan  ancestors  is  doubtless  due  to  the  softer 
environment.  The  Lepcha  is  under  the  average 
height,  supple  and  muscular  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence of  the  life  he  leads,  happy  in  his  native  hills, 
among  the  rich  abundance  of  animal  and  vegetable 
life.  He  knows  Nature  like  a  book.  Not  a  flower 
nor  plant,  not  a  bird  nor  beast  of  the  great  varieties 
to  be  found  among  his  hills  and  dales,  is  strange  to 
him.  He  will  imitate  the  call  of  a  bird  or  the  cry  of 
an  animal  so  as  to  deceive  its  kind.  In  meeting  the 
difficulties   and    dangers    of   the    forest,    he    displays 


OS2  INDIA. 

woiiderl'iil  coura<j;e  and  resource.  His  disposition  is 
gentle,  indolent,  affectionate,  sensitive,  subdued  almost 
to  nielaiK'lioly,  and  his  temper  serene  and  equable 
under  all  conditions.  He  is  a  born  naturalist,  and  an 
excellent  guide.  Superstitious,  romantic  and  fanciful, 
his  mind  is  full  of  strange  legends  and  poetic  tales 
that  relate  to  the  mountains  and  rivers  and  birds  and 
beasts  he  loves  so  well. 

A  Lepcha  dwelling  consists  of  a  rude  hut  elevated 
on  posts,  and  reached  by  way  of  a  notched  log  of 
wood.  The  entire  structure  is  made  of  bamboos  upon 
a  framework  of  logs.  Although  they  raise  small 
crops  of  maize,  barley  and  rice,  they  are  not  by  any 
means  dependent  upon  these  for  their  food.  The 
jungle  yields  wild  fruits  and  edible  plants  in  plenty, 
and  they  look  to  it  to  supply  all  their  wants,  with 
the  single  exception  of  salt. 

The  housewife  spins  the  fibre  of  the  nettle  into  a 
durable  fabric,  and  dyes  it  with  the  juice  of  the 
madder.  Her  household  utensils  are  derived  from 
the  same  source  ;  in  fact,  everything  these  people  need 
is  ready  at  hand  in  Nature's  storehouse.  The  Lepcha 
wife  is  the  head  of  the  family.  She  is  held  in  high 
esteem,  and  her  children  trace  their  descent  through 
her,  and  not  through  their  father.  She  has  but  one 
husband,  unlike  her  Sikkimese  neighbor,  who  may 
have  half  a  dozen.  Among  the  Sikkimese  Tibetans 
a  peculiar  species  of  fraternal  polyandry  is  universal, 
and    its   practice   includes   the    royal   family.      The 


SIKKIM.  283 

present  Queen  is  married,  not  only  to  the  King,  but 
at  the  same  time  to  his  brother.  The  wife  of  a  Sik- 
kimese  is  also  the  wife  of  his  younger  brothers,  but 
not  of  those  older  than  himself. 

Where,  on  the  plains  of  India,  one  would  find  a 
roadside  idol,  carved  from  a  tree  stump  or  rudely 
moulded  in  clay,  here  one  sees  a  stick  or  pole,  with  a 
number  of  rags  fluttering  from  the  top  of  it.  Each 
passer-by  tears  a  shred  from  his  clothing,  and  adds 
his  contribution  to  the  propitiatory  offerings  thus 
made  to  the  malignant  demons  who  infest  the  forests 
and  the  mountain  recesses.  Meanwhile  hundreds  of 
prayer-wheels  and  barrels  arc  manufacturing  petitions 
for  the  safety  of  these  intensely  superstitious  moun- 
taineers. The  most  effective  of  these  devices  for  the 
mechanical  production  of  vicarious  prayers  is  an  enor- 
mous Avooden  drum  operating  automatically  by  water 
power,  on  the  principle  of  the  mill  wheel,  and  per- 
forming its  pious  service  unceasingly  day  and  night. 

Monasteries  and  temples  are  scattered  about  in  the 
most  out-of-the-way  places.  The  ritual  and  the  reli- 
gion of  the  priests  is  a  queer  mixture  of  Buddhism 
and  demon-worship.  Animals  are  frequently  sacri- 
ficed, and  menacing  images  set  up.  The  services  arc 
interrupted  at  intervals  to  allow  the  priests  to  partake 
of  refreshments  in  the  presence  of  the  congregation. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  meet  upon  the  road 
one  of  the  so-called  lamas  with  a  prayer-wheel  in 
one  hand  and  a  bamboo  jug,  filled  with  the  murwar 


284  INDIA. 

beer  of  the  country,  in  the  other.  He  will  stroll 
along,  placidly  muttering  the  monotonous  "  Oni 
manu,"  etc.,  interrupting  the  utterance  every  few 
minutes  to  take  a  sip  of  the  liquid  through  a  reed. 
This  beer  is  the  national  beverage,  and  to  a  great 
extent  the  national  food.  It  is  drunk  by  men,  women 
and  children,  in  all  places  and  at  all  times.  It  is  a 
fermented  brew  from  the  millet  seed,  to  which  hot 
water  is  added.  It  is  mild,  and  has  a  pleasant,  sweet- 
ish acid  taste. 

The  Sikkimese  drink  very  little  tea,  and  what  they 
do  use  is  the  brick-tea  of  China,  which,  after  being 
brought  through  the  passes  by  yak  caravans,  and 
carried  to  Darjiling  on  men's  backs — a  journey  occupy- 
ing eight  mouths — is  sold  at  a  price  below  that  of  the 
lowest  grades  of  the  Indian  leaf.  The  bricks,  how- 
ever, are  composed  of  nothing  more  than  stalks, 
sweepings  and  compressed  dust. 

The  dominant  people  of  Sikkim  are  the  Bhotiyas. 
The  King  belongs  to  this  race,  and  his  wife,  like  the 
consorts  of  most  of  his  ancestors,  is  a  woman  of  Tibet. 
The  twelve  Kazis,  or  provincial  rulers,  are  Bhotiyas, 
as  well  as  all  the  principal  officers  of  the  State. 

The  Bhotiya  differs  widely  from  the  Lepcha  in 
physical  and  mental  characteristics,  although  they  h^ve 
a  common  ancestry.  The  former  are  tall,  strong  and 
energetic.  They  retain  the  rough  brutality  of  the 
Tibetans,  from  whom  they  sprung.  They  are  moun- 
taineers by  birth  and  instinct,  and  are  seldom  content 


SIKKIM.  285 

to  live  upon  the  plains.  They  dress,  like  the  Lepchas, 
in  the  long,  homespun  plaid,  descending  to  the  knee ; 
but,  whereas  the  Lepcha  only  wears  a  hat  on  festive 
occasions,  and  then  a  high-crowned  article  made  of 
cane,  the  Bhotiya  adheres  to  tlie  felt  Tibetan  cap  of 
Chinese  pattern.  Both  retain  the  Mongolian  pig^tail, 
and  display  the  Mongolian  characteristic  of  a  beard- 
less face.  The  Lepcha  carries  a  bow  and  arrow,  the 
latter  frequently  poisoned ;  the  Bhotiya  has  a  sword 
and  dagger,  and  occasionally  a  rifle.  The  Biiotiya 
frequently  wears  a  long  woolen  gown,  falling  to  the 
ankles,  with  loose,  wide  sleeves  turned  back  at  the 
wrists.  It  is  girdled  at  the  waist,  and  the  front  of  it 
is,  when  necessary,  doubled  up  to  form  a  receptacle 
for  all  sorts  of  portable  goods ;  the  roomy  pocket  thus 
formed  often  contains  a  wooden  drinking-cup,  food  of 
various  kinds,  pipe  and  tobacco,  matches,  rosary, 
prayer-wheel,  and  a  dozen  other  articles  more  or  less 
bulky. 

Not  the  least  of  the  hardships  to  which  the  traveler 
in  these  regions  is  subjected  are  the  attacks  of  pij)see 
flies  and  land-leeches.  The  former  resemble  small 
house-flies.  At  the  instant  of  alighting  they  draw 
blood,  and  deposit  a  poison  in  the  wound,  Avhich  often 
develops  into  an  ulcerated  sore.  The  damp  forest  is 
alive  with  leeches ;  they  swarm  upon  the  leaves  and 
branches  of  the  trees,  and  the  ground  is  so  thick  with 
them  that  there  is  positively  no  escape  from  the  blood- 
thirsty pests.      The  cattle,  ponies   and   goats   suffer 


2S()  INDIA. 

terribly.  Their  legs  are  always  bleeding,  more  or 
less,  and  these  pests  lodge  in  their  nostrils  and  hang 
fn)ni  their  eyelids  and  various  parts  of  their  body. 
To  dislodge  them  from  the  recesses  of  the  nose,  the 
herdsmen,  it  is  said,  keep  the  poor  beasts  from  water 
for  a  day  or  so,  and  then,  when  the  animal  drinks, 
the  leeches  show  themselves,  and  may  be  removed. 

In  the  Lachoong  valley,  at  an  elevation  of  about 
sixty-five  hundred  feet,  the  traveler  will  get  his  first 
sight  of  the  yak.  "  They  are  shaggy  beasts,  in  appear- 
ance something  between  the  American  bison  and  the 
cattle  of  the  Scotch  highlands;  and  their  curious,  grunt- 
ing call  is  aptly  denoted  in  their  scientific  name  of  Bos 
grunniens.  They  are  noble-looking,  massive  animals, 
especially  the  bull-yaks,  in  spite  of  their  oddly  round 
and  squat  appearance,  their  broad,  straight  backs,  short 
legs,  and  long,  silky  hair.  The  thick  coat  of  hair 
which  protects  them  from  perishing  in  the  arctic  cold 
of  the  snows  is  longest  on  their  sides  and  under-sur- 
faces,  and  in  some  of  the  older  animals  it  almost 
sweeps  the  ground.  The  tail  ends  in  a  great  bushy 
tuft,  which  serves  the  same  purpose  as  the  bushy  tail 
of  the  hybernating  squirrel,  curling  over  its  owner's 
feet  and  nose  when  asleep  like  a  rug,  and  thus  aiford- 
ing  protection  against  the  intense  cold  of  the  Hima- 
layan nights.  These  bushy  yak-tails  are  much  in 
demand  in  India  as  fly  whisks  for  Indian  princes,  and 
as  royal  emblems  for  the  idols  in  Indian  temples.  The 
color  of  the  wild  yak  is  a  dark  brown,  almost  black ; 


SIKKIM.  287 

but  most  of  the  domestic  yaks  acquire  a  good  deal  of 
white,  with  the  black  predomiuating ;  and  those  most 
valued  have  their  muzzles  tipped  with  white,  some 
white  on  their  necks,  and  their  tails  entirely  white." 

The  yak  is  a  most  useful  beast  to  tlie  Tibetan. 
From  it  he  obtains  milk ;  he  rides  upon  it,  and  uses 
it  as  a  pack-animal.  Despite  its  cumbersome  frame 
and  heavy  build,  the  yak  is  goatlike  in  its  activity. 
It  browses  over  the  precipitous  and  craggy  mountain 
side,  and  at  the  call  of  the  herdsman  comes  lumbering 
down  with  awkward  but  sure-footed  gait. 

These  herdsmen  form  a  curious  class  of  nomads, 
with  their  headquarters  at  Lachoong,  and  in  other 
valleys.  They  move  to  the  upper  levels  in  the  spring. 
The  entire  length  of  the  upper  valley  is  marked  off 
into  grazing  stations  by  clusters  of  rude  huts,  which 
the  herdsmen  occupy  as  they  come  to  them.  Thus 
they  make  a  gradual  ascent,  timing  themselves  to 
reach  the  top  of  the  pass,  at  an  elevation  of  eighteen 
thousand  feet,  some  time  in  June,  when  the  snow  will 
have  melted  sufficiently  to  admit  of  the  passage. 
Crossing  the  frontier,  they  move  on,  living  now  in 
their  black  yak-hair  tents,  to  one  or  other  of  the 
Til)etan  marts,  where  they  barter  their  prochu^e  for 
salt,  tea,  clotli,  rugs,  jewelry,  etc.  The  return  into 
Sikkim  is  made  toward  the  end  of  August,  so  that  th(> 
Lachoong  Valley  may  be  traversed  before  the  arrival 
of  the  heavy  snows.  Before  the  most  severe  weather 
sets  in    they    betake    themselves    and    their   cattle  to 


288  INDIA. 

still  lower  levels.  Thus  they  present  the  remarkable 
spectaele  of  a  village  community  which  is  almost 
constantly  on  the  move.  These  people  are  not  Sik- 
kiniese,  but  full-blooded  Tibetans,  and  hence  the 
impunity  with  which  they  cross  and  recross  the 
border. 

The  stranjjer  in  this  country  is  presented  by  the 
head-man  of  the  village,  or  by  the  chief  lama,  with 
a  scarf  of  Chinese  silk  as  a  token  of  deference  and 
amity.  This  ceremony  is  accompanied  by  a  saluta- 
tion also  of  Tibetan  origin.  The  left  hand  is  placed 
behind  the  ear,  with  the  action  common  to  deaf  per- 
sons, and  the  tongue  is  stuck  out  as  far  as  possible, 
and  a  low  obeisance  is  made,  with  the  head  uncov- 
ered. This  salute  is  said  to  signify  complete  defer- 
ence and  surrender,  as  one  would  say,  "  Here  are 
my  ear  and  tongue,  which  you  may  cut  off  if  it  will 
afford  you  any  pleasure  to  do  so."  To  refuse  the 
scarf  would  be  an  indication  of  displeasure  and 
enmity ;  its  acceptance  entails  the  obligation  to  make 
a  present  in  return,  which,  in  the  case  of  a  European, 
is  likely  to  be  of  much  greater  value  than  the  almost 
worthless  strip  of  cheap  silk. 

At  the  greater  heights  men  and  beasts  suffer  from 
mal  de  montagne.  The  rarefied  air  causes  headaches, 
nausea,  palpitation  and  debility.  Hooker  describes 
the  sensation  as  one  of  "  having  a  pound  of  lead  on 
each  knee-cap,  two  pounds  in  the  pit  of  the  stomach, 
and  a  hoop  of  iron  around  the  head." 


NEPAL.  289 

Referring  to  the  view  of  Tibet  from  the  summit  of 
one  of  the  passes,  Blandford  says,  "  It  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  landscapes  in  the  world,  and  alone 
worth  the  journey  to  see  it.  .  .  .  Cholamo  Lake  is  iu 
front,  beneath  the  feet  of  the  spectator ;  beyond  is  a 
desert,  with  rounded  hills ;  further  away  range  after 
range  of  mountains,  some  of  them  covered  with  snow, 
extend  to  a  distance  the  eye  cannot  appreciate.  The 
total  change  of  color  and  form  from  the  valleys  of 
Sikkim,  the  utter  barrenness,  the  intense  clearness  of 
the  atmosphere,  produce  such  an  eiFect  as  if  one  were 
gazing  upon  another  world,  in  Mliii, h  the  order  of  this 
is  no  longer  preserved,  where  a  tro])ical  desert  is  seen 
among  snow-capped  peaks,  beneath  the  unnaturally 
clear  atmosphere  of  the  arctic  regions." 

Over  to  the  west  from  Sikkim  lies  the  kingdom  of 
Kepal,  quasi-independent,  but  under  the  protection 
of  the  Indian  Government.  Although  upon  the 
most  friendly  terms  with  the  British,  the  Nepalis 
jealously  exclude  Europeans  from  their  country,  and 
their  frontier  is  as  rigidly  maintained  against  intru- 
sion as  that  of  Tibet.  A  British  Resident,  however, 
is  stationed  at  the  capital  to  act  as  adviser  to  the 
King,  and  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  Indian 
Government.  Long  ago — no  one  knows  just  when — a 
handful  of  Rajputs  emigrated  from  India  and  settled 
in  the  district  of  Gurkha.  Tiieir  martial  spirit  was  in 
no  degree  dimmed  by  their  inter-marriage  with  tlie 
Mongoloids  who  inliabitcd  N<;pal.  They  were  enter- 
VOL.  1.— lU 


2[)0  INDIA. 

jirisiiiir  after  tlie  fashion  of  the  times,  and  their 
talent  for  figliting,  as  Mell  as  the  prospect  of  rich 
spoils  in  their  company,  attracted  to  their  ranks  the 
brawniest  and  bravest  of  the  native  tribes.  Before 
long  tlie  Gurkhas  became  the  dominant  tribe  in 
Nepal,  and,  having  reduced  the  entire  country  to  sub- 
mission, began  to  turn  their  attention  to  further  fields 
of  conquest.  They  invadi-d  Tibet  in  1792,  and  over- 
ran tlie  Himalayas  east  and  west. 

Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  they  began  to  move 
upon  the  plains,  and  made  serious  encroachments 
upon  the  British  territory.  The  war  which  ensued, 
while  it  resulted  in  the  ultimate  victory  of  the  English, 
reflected  more  credit  upon  the  Gurkhas,  who  displayed 
extraordinary  bravery  and  a  degree  of  hardy  stamina 
that  succumbed  only  to  superior  numbers  and  over- 
whelming artillery.  The  veterans  of  the  Bengal 
Array  of  1815  declared  that  the  intrepid  Nepiilis 
were  the  most  formidable  foes  the  British  had  been 
confronted  with  in  India  up  to  that  time.  The  cam- 
paign convinced  the  Government  that  the  Gurkhas 
would  be  more  desirable  as  honorable  allies  than  as 
conquered  enemies.  Their  independence  was  main- 
tained and  their  friendship  secured.  They  have  been 
admirably  faithful  in  the  observance  of  all  treaty 
obligations,  and  have  furnished  the  Indian  Army 
with  some  of  the  best  regiments  on  the  establishment. 
The  famous  Gurkha  infantry  has  unfailingly  covered 
itself    with    glory    whenever    opiX)rtuuity    occurred. 


NEPAL.  291 

The  chief  difficulty  of  their  officers  has  always  been 
to  hold  the  hot-headed  little  mountaineers  in  check, 
while  they,  in  the  face  of  an  enemy,  are  ever  chafing 
to  get  close  enough  to  use  the  kukri,  the  haudy 
knife,  which,  despite  modern  training  and  discipline, 
he  prefers  to  rifle  and  bayonet.  In  many  a  hot 
fight,  he  has  proved  the  effectiveness  of  the  short, 
broad  blade  in  the  hand  of  a  fearless  man.  At 
Lucknow,  during  the  Mutiny,  Bahadur  Gambar 
Singh,  armed  only  with  the  kukri,  captured  three 
guns  single-handed,  and  killed  seven  of  the  rebels. 
He  survived  twenty-three  wounds,  received  in  the 
performance  of  this  desperate  deed,  to  enjoy  well- 
merited  promotion. 

In  all  the  wars  of  the  Indian  Government  since 
the  friendly  entente  was  established,  the  Gurkha 
regiments  have  distinguished  themselves.  During 
the  Mutiny,  not  only  did  the  Gurkha  regiments 
on  the  reofular  establishment  remain  loval  to  a  man, 
but  the  Nepalis  Government  voluntarily  furnished  the 
British  with  ten  thousand  men,  the  flower  of  their 
army,  commanded  by  Jang  Bahadur,  the  Prime 
Minister  and  Commander-in-Chief;  the  sole  condition 
of  service  being  that  a  British  officer  should  be  de- 
tailed to  lead  each  of  the  regiments  composing  the 
force. 

The  Tartar  strain  is  betrayed  in  the  features  of 
the  Nepalis.     Their  eyes  are  obliijue,  and  their  faces' 
beardless.     They  are  undersized,  but  active  as  cats, 


202  INDIA. 

and  possessed  of  a  vigor  and  energy  that  docs  not 
desert  them  even  in  old  age.  They  have  something 
of  the  good-natured,  excitable  and  pugnacious  disposi- 
tion of  the  Irishman.  They  are  capable  of  the 
softest  emotions  and  of  the  utmost  ferocity.  The 
Nepalis  have  adopted  the  externals  of  Hinduism,  but 
have  no  affinity  for,  nor  sympathy  with,  their  Bengali 
neighbors.  The  lines  of  caste  are  very  lax  with 
them,  and  they  habitually  perform  acts  that  would 
horrify  the  lowest  caste  Hindu.  Their  dress  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  Riljputs  of  northern  Hindustan ; 
it  consists  of  tight  cotton  trousers  and  close-fitting 
tunic,  w'itli  a  thick  kummerbund,  from  which  the 
kukri  is  never  absent.  Unlike  other  Himalayan 
tribes  of  Mongolian  descent,  they  do  not  wear  the 
pig-tail,  but  crop  their  hair  short,  and  cover  the  head 
with  a  turban,  or,  in  the  case  of  the  Gurkhas,  with  a 
small  skull  cap,  tilted  over  the  right  ear,  after  the 
fashion  of  British  cavalrymen.  Large  numbers  of 
Nepalis  have  been  induced  to  settle  in  British  terri- 
tory. They  are  good  husbandmen,  good  workmen, 
and,  as  has  already  been  said,  excellent  recruits  for 
the  army. 

While  monogamy  is  the  rule,  the  Nepalis  may  take 
a  second  wife,  if  the  first  be  barren.  The  women  are 
bright  and  attractive.  They  are  picturesque  in  the 
close-fitting  bodice  and  kilt,  bright  sash  and  gay  silk 
kerchief  thrown  over  the  head.  They  generally  carry 
the  entire  fortune  of  the  family  upon  their  persons,  in 


NEPAL.  293 

the  form  of  heavy  gold  and  silver  ornaments  on  neck, 
nose,  ears,  wrists,  hands  and  ankles.  Whereas,  on  the 
plains,  marriages  are  almost  invariably  matters  of 
family  convenience  in  which  the  principals  have 
no  voice,  in  Nepal  betrothal  is  generally  the  result 
of  an  affaire  de  coeur,  and  the  parties  to  it  are 
always  of  mature  age.  Like  the  Lepcha  wives, 
the  Nepalis  rule  their  husbands  and  govern  the 
household.  Marital  fidelity  is  characteristic  of 
them,  and  so  heinous  an  offence  is  a  breach  of  it, 
that  the  injured  husband  is  permitted  by  the  com- 
mon law  of  the  land  to  avenge  himself  by  killing  the 
offender. 

In  general,  the  physical  features  of  Nepal  are  simi- 
lar to  those  of  Sikkim,  but  in  the  former  country 
much  greater  areas  have  been  cleared  and  cultivated, 
and  roads  have  been  more  extensively  opened.  Many 
cart-roads  run  from  British  territory  to  the  numerous 
border  marts,  where  markets  are  held  for  the  exchange 
of  produce  and  various  articles  of  common  use.  The 
principal  trade  route  extends  from  Patnd  in  Bengal, 
through  the  Champaran  District,  to  Khatmdndu,  the 
capital  of  Nepal.  From  Khatmandu  two  roads 
diverge  over  the  central  range  of  the  Himalayas,  aud 
ultimately  come  together  again  in  the  valley  of  the 
Tsanpu,  the  great  river  of  Tibet.  The  principal 
items  of  import  from  Xcjjal  are  grain,  oil-seeds,  cattle, 
timber  and  horns ;  additional  articles,  which  do  not 
represent   large   figures,   are    musk,   borax,   madder, 


21)4  INDIA. 

cardamoms,  yak-tails,  ginger,  fur,  scentetl  grass  and 
hawks. 

While  the  trade  of  ludia  with  Nepal  and  Sikkira 
is  at  present  insignificant,  its  continuance  is  important, 
because,  in  all  probability,  the  British  will  eventually 
secure  through  these  States  channels  of  communica- 
tion with  Tibet,  with  its  enormous  commercial  possi- 
bilities. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE    HIMALAYAS,    HARDWAR. 

At  the  point  where  the  Ganges,  breaking  throngh 
the  Siwalik  range,  debouches  upon  the  plains,  stands 
the  ancient  and  sacred  town  of  Hai'dwar.  The 
present  name  is  comparatively  modern — not  more 
than  six  hundred  years  old  probably.  At  least  five 
centuries  before  Christ  the  place  was  called  Kapila, 
after  the  sage  who  lived  there,  and  who  founded  the 
Sankhya  system,  one  of  the  six  darsanas  of  Brah- 
manical  philosophy,  M'hich  explains  the  material 
world  by  gradual  evolution  through  successive  stages 
from  an  ever-existent  primordial  matter.  The  town 
received  many  other  names  before  it  came  to  be 
known  as  "  The  Doorway  of  Hiiri." 

Near  by  is  a  temple,  which  is  sacred  to  the  Hindus 
as  the  spot  where  Diiksha  prepared  his  eventful 
sacrifice.  As  the  Puranas  recount  the  story,  Daksha 
failed  to  invite  his  son-in-law  Siva  to  the  sacrificial 
feast.  Sati,  piqued  at  the  slight  put  upon  her 
husband,  committed  suicide  in  the  Ganges,  whereupon 
Siva,  enraged  at  the  loss  of  his  wife,  caused  Daksha's 
head  to  be  cut  off  and  burned.     Subsequently  rclcnt- 

295 


200  INDIA. 

ing,  Siva  restored  liis  clefunct  father-in-law  to  life,  and 
giibstituted  a  goat's  bead  for  the  member  which  had 
been  consumed  by  fire.  This  tragical  episode  in  the 
life  of  the  gods  occurred  at  Gangadwara,  "The  Gate 
of  the  Ganges,"  about  two  miles  below  the  famous 
l)atliiiii;  gliat  to  whicli  ])ilgrims  resort  in  tens  of  thou- 
sands every  year. 

The  first  day  of  the  Hindu  solar  year,  the  birthday 
of  the  Ganges,  is  the  great  occasion  of  the  festival  of 
Baisakh.  At  a  particular  moment,  astronomically 
calculated  by  the  priests,  the  multitude  makas  a  dash 
for  the  water,  which  is  at  that  time  supposed  to  be 
more  than  ordinarily  efficacious,  and,  as  at  the  Pool  of 
Siloam,  the  first  to  enter  the  stream  is  believed  to 
derive  s:reater  benefit  from  it  than  the  later  comers. 
The  last  hypothesis  is  the  cause  of  such  a  mad 
struggle  that  the  Government  has  found  it  necessary 
to  employ  a  large  force  of  police  to  restrain  the 
crowd.  Befi)re  this  precaution  was  taken,  many  lives 
were  lost  each  year.  On  one  occasion  upwards  of 
four  hundred  fanatics  met  their  death  in  the  frantic 
rush,  and  hundreds  more  were  seriously  injured. 

The  ordinary  pilgrimage  amounts  to  one  hundred 
thousan:!,  but  every  twelfth  year  the  Kumbh-mela, 
a  feast  of  extraordinary  sanctity,  occurs,  when  the 
attendance  of  pilgrims  is  trebled.  In  earlier  days 
the  concourse  which  gathered  at  the  Kumbh-mela 
was  very  much  larger  than  at  present.  Hardwicke 
and  Raper,  both  eye-witnesses  of  the  festival  about 


Snake  Charmers 


HARDWAR.  297 

oue  hundred  years  ago,  estimated  the  number  of 
pilgrims  present  on  one  occasion  at  two  and  a  half 
millions,  and  at  another  time  at  upwards  of  two 
millions.  Those  were  days  when  time  and  distance 
were  of  no  account  to  the  Hindu  ;  when  a  pilgrimage 
occupying  one,  two  or  three  years  Avould  be  entered 
upon  with  no  concern,  and  without  any  preparation. 

Even  at  this  day  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  see 
upon  the  road  a  fanatic  bent  on  such  a  journey  and, 
perhaps,  bound  by  a  vow  to  cover  the  entire  distance 
upon  his  belly.  This  tedious  process  of  locomotion  is 
accomplished  by  lying  at  full  length,  and  marking 
the  ground  with  a  stick  at  the  point  reached  by  the 
outstretched  arms.  The  devote  then  rises  and  Avalks 
to  the  mark,  when  the  same  act  is  repeated,  and  so  on 
over  a  thousand  or  more  miles  in  many  instances. 

Formerly  the  Kumbh-mela  was  the  invariable 
occasion  of  bloody  conflicts  between  opposing  sects. 
In  1765  such  a  fight  took  place,  in  which  it  is  said 
that  eighteen  thousand  ])eople  lost  their  lives. 
Thirty-five  years  later  the  Sikh  contingent  fell  upon 
the  Gusains  and  slew  five  hundred  of  them.  On  his 
return  from  the  sack  of  Delhi,  Tamerlane  turned  aside 
to  plunder  and  massacre  the  pilgrims  assembled  at 
Hardwar  for  the  great  festival. 

In  the  neighborhood  are  several  shrines  of  great 
repute,  and,  among  iiuiumerablc  minor  temples,  three 
or  four  of  considerable  size  and  antiquity. 

Hiouen  Thsang,  the  Buddhist  pilgrim  from  China, 


208  INDIA. 

tells  of  a  city  wliicli  he  visited  in  this  locality  whose 
l)oj)ulation  he  describes  as  dense.  The  ruins  of  this 
ancient  city  are  still  to  be  seen  at  Mayapnr.  Its  wall 
must  have  measured  close  on  to  twenty  thousand  feet 
in  circumference.  There  are  the  remains  of  an  old 
fort  and  three  temples,  as  well  as  many  lofty  mounds 
covered  with  broken  brick.  The  antiquity  of  the 
place  is  attested  by  the  numerous  fragments  of  ancient 
sculpture,  and  by  the  variety  of  old  coins,  which  have 
been  found  on  the  spot.  The  extensive  foundations 
of  heavy  brickwork  support  the  belief  that  the  city 
which  occupied  this  site  in  olden  days  must  have  been 
a  place  of  considerable  importance. 

Hardwar  is  the  starting-point  of  the  great  Ganges 
Canal  system,  on  which  the  Government  has  ex- 
pended over  sixty  millions  of  rupees,  and  up  to  the 
present  time  has  realized  seven  per  cent,  on  the 
investment. 

Hardwar  has  an  annual  horse  fair,  which  attracts 
buyers  and  sellers  from  afar,  and  at  which  the 
Government  agents  get  a  great  many  remounts  for 
the  cavalry.  There  is  a  large  amount  of  general 
trading  done  on  the  same  occasion,  which  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  prosperity  of  the  town  of 
thirty  thousand  inhabitants. 

These  Siwalik  Hills  and  the  surrounding  country 
were  the  abode  of  the  gods  in  the  days  when  they 
w^alked  the  earth,  and  the  chief  importance  of  many 
a   modern   town   and    military  station    lies,   in   the 


HARDWAR.  299 

estimatiou  of  the  Hindu,  not  in  its  material  pros- 
perity or  strategic  position,  but  in  its  association  with 
some  important  event  in  the  marvelous  career  of  the 
Puranic  deities  or  the  heroes  of  the  epics.  Thus 
Dehra  Dun  is  connected  by  legend  with  Rama  and 
with  the  Paudu  brothers. 

It  was  in  this  valley  that  the  sixty  thousand  Lilli- 
putian Brahmans  were  arrested  in  their  progress  by 
the  hoof-hole  of  a  cow  filled  with  water.  Indra  saw 
the  vain  efforts  of  the  pigmies  to  cross  this  formidable 
lake,  and  laughed  in  scorn  at  them.  Indignant  at 
this  treatment,  the  little  men  set  to  work  by  penance 
to  create  another  god  to  take  the  place  of  the  scoffer. 
The  sweat  produced  by  their  strenuous  exertions 
created  tlie  little  river  Suswa. 

There  is  a  legend  of  a  great  snake  named  Bamuu, 
who,  in  the  remote  past,  ruled  over  the  Dun,  and 
lived  on  the  summit  of  the  Nagsidh  Hill.  While 
there  is  little  else  to  point  to  the  conclusion,  this 
fact,  and  the  surviving  name  of  the  hill,  are  reason- 
able grounds  for  the  assumption  that  the  district  was 
at  one  time  under  Ndga  supremacy. 

Another  tradition  attributes  the  earliest  population 
of  the  place  to  a  caravan  of  Banjaras,'  the  hen.ditary 

*  The  Banjdrd.s,  Brinjarries,  or  Manaris,  are  a  caste  of  oxen- 
drivers,  who  from  early  times  monopolized  the  carrying  trade  of 
India.  They  were  nomads,  living  in  tents,  and  moving  about  all 
over  the  country  from  Kashmir  to  Cape  Comorin.  Tavernier  de- 
scribes their  caravans  as  consisting  sometimes  of  strings  of  pac-k- 
oxen  ;   at  others  of  bullock,  carts.    They  were  divided  into  four  sub- 


300  INDIA. 

carriers  of  Iiuliii,  who,  passing  by,  were  so  struck 
MJth  the  beauty  of  the  valley  that  they  settled  in  it. 

The  authentic  history  of  Dehra  Diiu  commences  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  Sikh  Guru,  Ram 
Rai,  being  exiled  from  the  Punjab,  took  refuge  here, 
and  attracted  to  himself  a  sufficient  number  of 
disciples  to  form  a  considerable  village,  out  of  which 
grew  the  present  town  of  Dehra  Dun.  He  is  said  to 
have  possessed  the  remarkable  faculty  of  suspending 
and  resuming  animation  at  will.  On  several  occa- 
sions he  rendered  himself  apparently  lifeless,  and 
resumed  the  natural  functions  at  a  stipulated  time.^ 

castes,  each  numbering  about  a  hundred  thousand  men,  women  and 
children.  Each  division  was  devoted  to  the  carriage  of  one  of  the 
four  principal  commodities  of  commerce — namely,  rice,  corn,  millet 
and  salt — and  the  members  of  it  would  handle  no  other  than  their 
own  particular  commodity,  nor  did  the  Banjaras  ever  engage  in  any 
other  occupation.  A  caravan  consisted  of  several  thousand  pack- 
animals,  or  of  two  or  three  hundred  wagons  drawn  by  ten  or  twelve 
oxen,  attended  by  a  guard  of  soldiers.  Each  caravan  had  its  chief, 
who  affected  as  much  state  as  a  prince,  and  its  priests,  who  daily 
conducted  the  serpent  worship,  which  was  the  form  of  religion 
followed  by  these  peculiar  people.  The  Banjards  exist  to-day,  but 
of  course  their  monopoly  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  their  business 
has  been  much  modified  by  modern  conditions  of  traffic. 

1  This  legend  of  the  voluntary  death  and  resurrection  of  the  Guru 
is,  perhaps,  not  quite  so  fanciful  as  it  would  appear.  The  phenom- 
enon of  suspended  animation  is  not  an  uncommon  one  in  India. 
Many  yogis  have  claimed  the  power,  and  in  more  than  one  instance 
the  claim  has  borne  the  test  of  the  most  careful  investigation  by 
Europeans.  There  are  authentic  instances  of  men  having  been 
buried  deep  in  the  ground  for  days,  with  a  guard  placed  over  the 
grave,  when  animation  has  been  restored  after  the  body  waa 
exhumed. 


DEHEA  DUX.  301 

"Whether  his  actual  decease  was  accident  or  design 
is  not  stated,  but  the  charpoy  upon  which  he  died  is 
held  in  extreme  veneration,  and  carefully  preserved, 
amid  a  surrounding  of  jewels  and  costly  drapery, 
in  the  temple. 

A  peculiar  ceremony  is  observed  in  connection  with 
this  spot.  A  flag-staff,  formed  of  the  tallest  tree  the 
neighboring  forest  will  afford,  is  set  up  in  front  of  the 
shrine,  and  decorated  with  red  bunting,  and  topped 
with  a  white  yj^k-tail.  The  flag  and  pole  are  renewed 
year  by  year,  but  left  standing  from  one  festival  to 
the  next. 

On  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  near  Haripur,  is 
a  huge  boulder  of  quartz,  standing  upon  a  platform 
of  rock  which  overhangs  the  river.  This  is  the 
famous  Kalsi  stone,  which  Hunter  believes  to  mark 
the  ancient  boundary  between  India  and  the  Chinese 
Empire.  It  bears  one  of  the  many  humanitarian 
edicts  of  the  Buddhist  Emperor  Asoka,  which  are  to 
be  found  in  Upper  India. 

At  the  time  of  the  Nepal  war  all  this  mountain 
country,  even  beyond  Simla,  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Gurkhas.  In  the  Dehra  Ddn  campaign  Gillespie, 
the  hero  of  Vellore,  fell,  with  several  other  English- 
men, as  a  monument  in  tiie  neig]il)()rhood  testifies. 
On  the  ground  where  they  fought  the  Briton,  not  so 
many  years  ago,  Gurkha  recruits  may  be  seen  to-day, 
in  training  to  fight  Britain's  future  battles  in  the 
East. 


302  INDIA. 

Due  north  is  the  crcsecnt  liill  of  Masurl,  thickly 
dotted  with  buni^alows,  luul  backed  by  the  suowy 
range  of  the  main  Himalayas.  A  slice  of  rock,  sheer 
as  a  wall  on  cither  side,  stands  like  a  knife-blade,  two 
hundred  yards  long  and  not  much  broader  than  a 
carriage-way,  between  Masuri  and  the  military  station 
of  Landaur. 

The  scenery  of  the  Dun  can  hardly  be  surpassed 
for  picturesque  beauty,  even  when  compared  with  the 
richest  sections  of  the  ever  lovely  Himalayan  range. 
The  picture  is  one  of  exquisite  variety.  On  the 
north  lofty  and  rugged  mountains,  intersected  by 
gorges  and  ravines,  enlivened  in  the  rains  by  water- 
fall and  torrent ;  on  the  south,  hills  less  stern  and 
striking,  but  perhaps  more  beautiful  in  their  wealth 
of  form  and  color.  Everywhere  sturdy  forest,  riotous 
vegetation  and  forest  grass,  stimulated  by  the  peren- 
nial streams  which  wander  through  this  district. 
Deodar,  oak  and  fir  clothe  the  heights,  save  where 
difficult  cultivation  is  carried  on  by  terraced  cuttings 
in  the  steep  slopes.  Within  quite  modern  times  the 
wild  elephant  roamed  at  will  among  the  jungly  eleva- 
tions of  the  Siwalik  range,  and  tigers,  leopards  and 
bears  were  numerous ;  but  with  the  advent  of  the 
white  man  the  wilder  animals  have  betaken  them- 
selves to  more  remote  and  safer  regions. 

The  Dun  is  divided  by  a  ridge  which,  running 
north  and  south,  connects  the  two  mountain  ranges, 
and  forms  the  water-shed  of  the  Gano^es  and  its  chief 


KASAULI.  303 

tributary,  the  Jumna.  The  former,  passuig  between 
the  Dun  and  Gharwhal,  pours  rapidly  over  a  boulder- 
strewn  bed,  through  a  score  of  channels,  encircling 
jungle-clad  islets,  and  debouches,  a  stream  a  mile  in 
breadth,  upon  the  plain  at  Hardwar.  The  Jumna, 
taking  a  sweeping  course,  forms  the  entire  south- 
western boundary  of  the  district,  and  emerges  upon 
the  level  uplands  near  Badshah  ]\Iahal,  an  ancient 
hunting-seat  of  the  Delhi  Emperors. 

Umballa,  the  earliest  settlement  of  the  Aryan 
invaders  of  India,  is  a  typical  plain  station,  hot, 
low,  sandy  and  barren ;  yet  only  thirty-five  miles 
farther  north  the  railroad  is  brought  to  an  abrupt 
stop  by  the  Himalayan  ramparts.  From  Kalka  a 
bridle-path  zigzags  up  the  precipitous  mountain-side 
to  Kasauli,  at  an  elev^atiou  of  six  thousand  three 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  So  steep  is  the  ascent 
that  the  pathway  runs  back  and  forth,  like  the  teeth 
of  a  saw,  and  from  the  top  it  is  possible  to  di-op  a 
stone  into  the  village  below.  The  journey  up  the 
mountain  may  be  made  in  a  jhampan,  or  uj)()n  the 
back  of  a  pony.  The  jhanipau  is  a  sort  of  sedan- 
chair,  borne  on  two  cross-poles,  and  not  on  one  pole 
in  the  line  of  its  length,  as  the  palanquin.  The 
liorseback  ascent,  for  the  first  time,  is  apt  to  be  a 
little  trying  on  the  nerves.  The  path  is  extremely 
narrow,  and  the  hill  ponies,  from  the  habit  of  carry- 
ing burdens  extending  far  beyond  their  sides,  have 
become  accustomed  to  walking  as  close  to  the  edge  of 


304  INDIA. 

the  precipice  as  possible,  so  that  the  rider,  witli  one 
leg  hanging  over  the  side,  is  apt  to  be  unduly  con- 
cerned about  his  safety.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
little  ponies  are  as  sure-footed  as  goats,  and  having 
spent  their  entire  lives  in  journeying  up  and  down 
this  bridle-path,  are  perfectly  familiar  with  every  foot 
of  it. 

The  writer  once  had  urgent  occasion  to  descend 
from  Kasauli  to  Kalka  at  night.  Although  the  jour- 
ney by  daylight  had  ceased  to  cause  him  the  least 
uneasiness,  it  was  not  without  some  trepidation  that 
he  started  upon  it  after  dark,  especially  as  a  cavalry- 
man and  his  mount  had  gone  to  destruction  down  the 
side  of  the  mountain  only  a  few  days  before.  How- 
ever, by  throwing  the  knotted  bridle  loose  upon  the 
pony's  neck,  and  leaving  him  to  find  his  way 
without  interference,  the  descent  was  accomplished 
in  good  time  without  the  slightest  danger  or 
mishap, 

Kasauli  is  one  of  the  several  cantonments  and 
convalescent  stations  which  surmount  the  lesser  peaks 
hereabouts.  Sabathu,  Dagshai,  Jotagh  and  Simla 
are  all  near  by,  and  all  connected  by  roads  which  dip 
and  rise  among  the  hilly  defiles.  The  heliograph  is 
an  especially  convenient  and  effective  means  of 
communication  at  these  great  elevations.  Messages 
are  sent  and  received  with  ease  at  distances  of  thirty 
or  forty  miles,  and  the  sun  rarely  fails  the  signaler. 

The  entire  range  of  the  Himalayas  from  Darjiling 


SIMLA.  305 

to  Peshawar  is  dotted  with  sanitariums,  to  which 
invalid  soldiers  are  sent  from  the  plain  stations. 
Most  of  them  are  victims  of  enteric  fever,  which, 
since  the  ravages  of  cholera  and  small-pox  have  been 
so  effectually  checked,  is  the  disease  most  prevalent 
among  the  troops  in  India. 

Lord  Amherst  was  the  first  Governor-General  to 
spend  a  summer  in  Simla,  but  it  was  not  until  the 
administration  of  Sir  John  Lawrence  that  the  station 
became  the  regular  seat  of  the  Imperial  Government 
during  the  summer.  Now,  when  the  hot  weather  sets 
in,  the  entire  executive  force  forsakes  Calcutta  for 
Simla,  which  has  all  the  necessary  secretariats 
and  offices ;  in  several  instances  fine  blocks  of 
buildings. 

The  six-mile  crescent  ridge,  along  which  residential 
Simla  stretches,  has  Prospect  Hill  for  its  most 
westerly  point,  and  the  beautiful  wooded  peak  of 
Jako  at  its  easterly  extremity.  Jako  is  eight  thou- 
sand feet  above  sea  level,  and  overlooks  the  station 
from  a  superior  elevation  of  one  thousand  feet. 
From  this  hill  a  magnificent  panorama  is  presented  to 
the  spectator.  Northward  lies  a  confused  mass  of 
mouutain  peaks,  topping  and  overtoj)ped,  their  slopes 
clothed  witli  deodars  and  rhododendrons  as  liigh  as 
the  snow-line,  above  which  their  hoary  summits  stand 
out  in  clear  relief  against  the  azure  sky.  On  the 
south  the  plain  of  Umballa,  with  the  flat-top  hills  of 
Sabiithu  and  Kasauli  in  the  foreground,  and  the  mas- 
VoL.  I— 20 


306  INDIA. 

sive  bulk  of  the  Chor  toward  the  east.  Immediately 
below  the  spectator's  feet  a  series  of  huge  ravines 
lead  down  to  the  deep  valleys  which  score  the 
mouutain  side  in  every  direction,  and  which,  in  the 
season  of  the  rains,  are  filled  with  rushing,  roaring 
torrents. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


KASHMIR. 


Tradition,  which  is  supported  by  certain  indica- 
tious  of  a  scientific  character,  aifirms  that  the  whole 
valley  of  Kashmir  was  at  one  time  a  lake.  The 
drainage  of  the  region  is  attributed  to  a  certain  saint, 
who  effected  it  by  causing  the  Baramiila  range  to 
part  and  let  the  Jhelam  through. 

At  over  five  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  the  A^ale 
of  Kashmir  lies  within  a  complete  circle  of  moun- 
tains, the  whole  forming  a  basin  eighty  odd  miles  in 
length  and  about  twenty -five  in  breadth,  with 
flattened  bottom.  In  the  middle  lies  an  extensive 
level  alluvial  tract,  watered  by  numerous  small 
streams,  which,  running  down  from  the  surrounding 
heights,  ultimately  join,  to  form  the  Jhelam  and  find 
an  exit  through  the  Baranu'ila  Pass  to  the  plains  of 
the  Punjab.  From  the  encircling  mountain  wall  jut 
inwards  a  number  of  comparatively  low  plateaus, 
with  intervening  ravines  of  from  one  to  three 
hundred  feet  in  de])th.  These  karewas,  to  use  tin; 
native  name  fi)r  them,  have  a  loamy  soil,  which, 
where   it  is   subjected   to   irrigation,   rivals    the   2)ro- 

307 


308  INDIA. 

(liu'tivenoss  of  the  lower  ];ni<l ;  but,  where  cultivation 
depends  upon  rain  alone,  the  yield  is  precarious. 
Upon  the  surface  of  the  karewas  are  found  fossil 
remains  of  fresli-water  fish  and  molluscs,  indicating  a 
lacustrine  or  fluvial  origin. 

The  lofty  mountains  which  bound  the  valley  are 
snow-covered  for  nearly  eight  months  in  the  year, 
and  in  some  places  large  glaciers  exist  between  their 
spurs.  On  the  southern  side,  where  the  range 
assumes  a  gentle  slope,  the  scenery  is  softly  beautiful 
in  character,  but  upon  the  north  the  country  is 
sublimely  w'ild,  the  mountains  rising  in  rugged 
precipices  of  stupendous  height,  down  whose  bare 
sides  numerous  streams  rush  and  fall  in  cataract-like 
course.  The  tops  of  the  mountains  which  enclose 
the  northeastern  side  of  the  valley  are  covered  with 
peculiar  downs,  or  margs,  whose  long,  rich  grass 
affords  splendid  pasturage  for  large  flocks  and  herds. 

It  is  not  without  reason  that  Kashmir  has  received 
the  name  of  "  Happy  Valley."  There  is,  perhaps, 
no  considerable  section  of  India  to  which  Nature  has 
been  so  bountiful.  The  scenery  is  beautiful,  the 
climate  delightful,  the  soil  fertile  and  the  people  well 
fed  and  well  governed.  In  the  summer  the  valley  is 
one  vast  garden,  in  which  flowers  and  fruit  grow  in 
profusion,  and  almost  spontaneously.  The  region  is 
famous  the  world  over  for  its  roses,  and  flowers  of 
various  descriptions  bloom  riotously  everywhere. 
The  crocus  is  cultivated  for  its  saffron,  which  is  used 


KASHMIE.  309 

as  a  condiment  and  as  a  medicine.  Oranges  and 
lemons  will  not  survive  the  winter,  but  nearly  all  the 
fruits  and  vegetables  of  temperate  and  semi-tropical 
climes  grow  in  abundance.  So  with  the  trees,  which 
include  yew,  elm,  chestnut,  poplar,  willow,  maple  and 
various  flowering  hawthorns.  On  the  mountain 
slopes  the  pine,  fir  and  rhododendron  flourish,  and  the 
deodar,  or  Himalayan  cedar,  attains  a  height  of  two 
hundred  feet  and  a  girth  of  forty  feet. 

Kashmir  is  a  favorite  huntinff-g-round  of  the 
Anglo-Indian  sportsman.  Civilians,  and  officers  on 
short  furlough,  come  here  from  all  quarters  of  the 
Empire  for  the  sake  of  the  shooting,  which  has  the 
advantage  of  plenty  and  variety,  without  the  attendant 
danger  of  fever  so  often  associated  with  other  hunting 
districts.  Bears  of  three  or  four  kinds  are  to  be 
found  in  the  hills,  and  leopards  in  the  grazing- 
grounds,  where  they  prey  upon  the  cattle.  The  stag, 
the  chamois  and  the  ibex  frequent  the  northern 
elevations,  where  various  species  of  wild  goats  may 
also  be  met.  Musk  deer  find  a  home  in  the  birch 
woods,  and  several  varieties  of  the  antelope  seek  their 
food  u])on  the  lower  crop  lands.  For  game  birds, 
there  are  the  jiheasant,  partridge,  quail,  M'oodeock  and 
jack-snipe.  These  come  from  their  natural  habitat 
in  Central  Asia  to  avoid  the  extreme  cold  of  mid- 
winter, and  return  with  the  advent  of  spring. 
Moor-hens,  dab-chicks,  grebes  and  other  water  fowl 
are  plentiful  in  autumn  and  winter  about  the  lakes, 


310  INDIA. 

upou  the  borders  cf  which  herons  are  numerous,  and 
in  the  neighboring  marshes  a  gigantic  crane  is  often 
seen. 

The  cuckoo  and  the  nightingale,  or  bulbul,  are 
natives  of  Kashmir,  and  the  golden  oriole,  maina 
and  hoopoe  are  numbered  among  the  feathered  deni- 
zens of  its  gardens.  The  mountains  harbor  different 
kinds  of  eagles,  and  the  birds  of  prey  include  the 
vulture,  falcon  and  hawk.  Venomous  snakes  are 
extremely  rare,  but  the  cobra  has  been  found  in  the 
valley. 

The  inhabitants  of  Kashmir  are,  as  might  be  sup- 
posed from  their  environment,  a  fine  and  healthy  race. 
The  men  are  tall,  muscular  and  well-built,  w^ith  com- 
plexions usually  olive,  but  sometimes  fair,  and  even 
ruddy,  especially  among  the  Hindus.  Their  features 
ara  regular  and  attractive,  and  in  the  jNIuhammadans 
display  the  Jewish  cast  so  marked  in  the  Pathan,  to 
whom  they  are  related.  The  women  from  of  old 
have  been  celebrated  for  their  beauty.  Hamilton, 
writing  in  1828,  gives  a  somewhat  mixed  description 
of  the  natives  of  Kashmir,  whom  he  describes  as 
"  gay  and  lively,  eager  in  the  pursuit  of  wealth, 
accounted  much  more  acute  and  intriguing  than  the 
natives  of  Hindustan,  generally  and  proverbially 
liars.  They  are  also  much  addicted  to  literature, 
poetry  and  drinking."  This  is  not  entirely  fair  to  the 
Kashmiri. 

The  Muhammadans  form  the  majority  of  the  popu- 


Girls  of   Kashmir 


KASHMIR.  311 

lation,  but  they  are  not  very  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
Hindus.  Caste  sits  lightly  on  the  latter,  even  though 
they  be  Brdhmans.  So  great  a  difference  exists 
between  the  Brahmans  of  Kashmir  and  those  of  India 
proper  that  when  one  of  the  former  leaves  his  country 
he  is  looked  upon  as  cutting  himself  off  from  his 
religious  affiliations.  It  is  not  long  since  his  emigra- 
tion was  considered  equivalent  to  dcnth,  and  the 
service  for  the  dead  was  performed  over  him.  Those 
were  the  days,  however,  when  the  way  was  beset  with 
numerous  and  various  difficulties  and  dangers,  and  ihe 
means  of  communication  were  scant.  INIoreovcr,  the 
wanderers  in  time  took  up  the  severe  ritual  and 
imbibed  the  strict  ideas  of  the  Bnlhmans  of  the 
plains,  which  naturally  filled  them  with  horror  and 
disgust  of  the  loose  practices  of  their  own  people  in 
the  matters  of  food  and  drink,  and  intercourse  with 
low-castes  and  Muharamadans. 

The  Kashmiris,  of  all  classes,  have  the  tea-habit 
to  an  excessive  degree.  The  Indian  leaf  is  used  by 
those  who  can  afford  it,  and  for  the  poorer  people  the 
brick-tea  of  China  is  imported  in  large  quantities 
through  Ladjtkh,  The  samovar,  or  tea  urn,  which 
is  to  be  found  in  every  house,  is  a  relic  of  the  trade 
which  was  carried  on  with  the  country,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  by  Russian  mer- 
chants, who  came  into  tlie  valley  from  the  north,  by 
way  of  Yarkand. 

The  present  Mahdraja  is  a  man  of  education  and 


312  INDIA. 

liberal  ideas,  a  Rajput  by  descent,  and  a  Commander 
of  the  Star  of  India.  He  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of 
twenty-one  guns,  and  pays  an  annual  tribute  to  the 
British  Government  of  one  horse,  twelve  goats  and 
three  pairs  of  shawls.  Like  most  of  the  present 
princes  of  India,  he  occupies  a  position  due  largely  to 
accident,  and  cannot  claim  long  nor  illustrious  descent. 

In  the  game  of  chess  which  was  played  upon  the 
board  of  India  during  the  past  two  centuries  most 
of  the  greater  pieces  were  lost,  and  there  were  many 
pawns  "  queened."  Thus  the  exalted  Sindhia  is  de- 
scended from  a  patel,  or  slipper-bearer,  and  Holkar 
from  a  goat-herd.  The  rise  of  the  present  ruler  of 
Baroda  was  even  more  sudden.  Many  wall  remember 
the  sensational  trial  of  the  Gdekwar,  in  1874,  for 
attempting  to  poison  the  British  Resident.  He  was 
defended  before  a  High  Commission  by  the  famous 
Serjeant  Ballantine,  but  found  guilty  and  deposed. 
In  accordance  with  Hindu  custom,  the  Government 
permitted  the  queen  dowager  to  adopt  a  successor  to 
the  throne.  Three  village  boys  of  good  caste,  but 
of  obscure  families,  were  presented  to  her  for  the 
purpose,  and  her  choice  fell  upon  him  who,  as  the 
Gaekwar  of  Baroda,  is  esteemed  the  most  enlightened 
native  ruler  in  India  to-day. 

Ghdlab  Singh  began  life  as  a  common  trooper,  under 
the  great  Ranjit  Singh.  The  grandson  of  the  former 
rules  over  the  kingdom  of  Kashmir,  while  the  grandson 
of  the  latter  is  a  pensioned  exile  from  his  native  land. 


KASHMIR.  313 

Strange  indeed  have  been  the  experiences  and  vicis- 
situdes of  the  royal  houses  of  India.  The  changes 
brought  about  by  the  British  have  been  many,  but 
accompanied  by  results  less  harsh  than  those  Nvrought 
by  former  rulers  of  the  country,  who  frequently  sub- 
verted a  throne,  and  destroyed  the  ruling  family  root 
and  branch.  In  fact,  the  chief  indictment  that  can 
be  sustained  against  the  British  in  this  connection 
is  that  of  having  exercised  a  false  generosity  upon 
utterly  unworthy  objects  in  many  instances. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  these  great  fluctuations 
in  fortune  would  tend  toward  the  creation  of  a  spirit 
of  democracy  in  the  princes  of  India ;  but,  far  from 
such  being  the  case,  the  old  spirit  of  caste  superiority 
is  as  lively  as  ever,  and  the  political  grades  recog- 
nized by  the  Government  by  no  means  rei)rosent  the 
feelings  of  the  people  in  the  matter.  The  nine-gun 
princeling,  whose  presence  at  the  Coronation  festivi- 
ties, or  at  the  Delhi  Durbar,  was  scarcely  the  subject 
of  attention,  may  deem  himself  degraded  by  contact 
with  the  twenty-one-gun  G.  C.  S.  I.  ]>otentate,  whose 
doings  excite  the  solicitude  of  governors  and  cabinet 
ministers. 

The  fact  that  among  the  native  rulers  are  to  be 
found  Muhammadans,  Brahmans,  Rajputs,  and  even 
Stidras,  restricts  social  intercourse;  and  since  his  old- 
time  occupations  of  warfare  and  intrigue  are  gone,  the 
r^ija  of  to-day  generally  finds  life  somewluit  flat  and 
wearisome.     He  may,  like  Sindhia,  whose  income  is 


314  INDIA. 

fifteen  millions  of  dollars  a  year,  have  immense 
\vealtli,  or,  like  the  Nizam,  a  large  army;  but  iiis 
pleasures  are  curtailed  and  his  power  shorn.  His  day 
is  passed  in  insipid  occupation,  if  we  compare  it  with 
his  old-time  life,  and  that  of  his  fathers.  In  the  fore- 
noon he  performs  his  religious  duties,  according  to  his 
faith,  and  transjicts  state  business,  frequently  in  a  very 
perfunctory  manner.  The  heat  of  the  day  is  avoided 
in  the  zenana,  and  the  cool  of  the  evening  finds  him 
abroad  in  his  barouche,  or  on  horseback,  with  gaudy 
body-guard  of  lancers.  Women  may  not  be  present 
at  his  meals ;  so  dinner,  even  when  he  entertains 
guests,  is  not  a  very  exhilarating  function.  The 
later  hours  may  be  whirled  away  with  a  game  of 
chess,  or  chaupur,  and  so  early  to  bed. 

Almost  all  the  Indian  princes  are  lovers  of  horses, 
and  many  have  exceedingly  fine  studs.  A  few  of 
them  are  sportsmen,  and  some  are  genuinely  concerned 
in  the  problems  of  government. 

The  modern  Indian  palace  is  too  often  hideous  with 
a  tasteless  display  of  European  furniture  and  orna- 
ments of  the  gilt  and  gaudy  type. 

A  new  generation  of  rulers  is,  however,  arising  in 
India — men  who  are  receiving  their  educations  in 
England,  or  under  English  tutors,  and  who  are  ex- 
hibiting the  traits  and  manners  which  go  to  make  the 
gentleman,  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  sense  of  the  term.  With 
their  accession  to  power,  a  great  change  for  the  better 
cannot  fail  to  be  worked  throughout  the  Indian  Empire. 


KASHMIR.  315 

A  more  delightful  loafing-place  than  Kashmir 
would  be  impossible  to  find.  Such  was  the  expressed 
opinion  of  the  early  Mughal  monarchs,  who  found 
frequent  occasions  to  spend  soft  leisure  in  the  "  Happy 
Valley."  Akbar  was  kindly  disposed  toward  the 
country,  and  displayed  his  good  will  by  lightening 
its  burdens.  Abtil  Fazal,  a  contemporary,  tells  us 
that  "  His  Majesty  has  now  commanded  that  the  crops 
shall  be  equally  divided  between  the  husbandman  and 
the  State."  Kot  a  measure  of  extreme  generosity, 
judged  by  modern  standards  of  equity,  but,  consid- 
ered in  the  light  of  the  conditions  prevailing  at  the 
time,  a  law  calculated  to  evoke  the  blessings  of  the 
rayat  upon  the  head  of  the  "  Guardian  of  Mankind." 

To  the  valley  came  Jahangir  and  Shdh  Jahdn  to 
indulge  their  softer  moods,  as  Moore — who,  however, 
gets  his  principal  characters  curiously  mixed  up — 
relates  in  the  "Light  of  the  Harem."  Jahangir 
loved  the  Vale  of  Kashmir,  where,  with  the  fascinat- 
ing Niir  Mahal,  he  had  passed  the  happiest  hours  of 
his  life.  There  he  sought  to  end  his  days,  and  so, 
with  the  shadow  of  death  upon  hira,  bade  his  people 
carry  him  to  the  "  Happy  Valley."  But  he  got  no 
farther  than  Behramgul,  in  the  heart  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  there  in  a  remote  corner  of  his  empire, 
apart  from  the  pomp  and  circumstance  befitting  the 
Great  Mughal,  he  breathed  his  last. 

For  the  pleasure  of  those  imperious  beauties,  Nur 
Mahal  and  Miimtaj,  groves  and  arbors  and  esplan- 


316  INDIA. 

adeswere  laid  out;  the  "Grarden  of  Bliss"  and  the  "  Re- 
treat of  Breezes";  palaces  were  built,  not  the  heavy,  som- 
bre structures  of  the  royal  cities,  but  light,  romantic  sum- 
mer houscs,overlooking  lakes  and  overshadowed  by  hills. 

So  the  roaming  aesthete  of  to-day  is  the  successor 
of  a  long  line  of  voluptuous  faineants.  Many 
and  pleasant  are  the  ways  in  which  he  may 
while  aAvay  the  summer  months  of  Kashmir  in 
luxurious  idleness.  At  Baramula,  on  the  Jhelam,  he 
will  find  a  small  colony  of  kindred  spirits  installed 
in  floating  domiciles,  the  prototypes  of  the  Henley 
house-boat.  These  are  of  various  grades,  and  go  in 
pairs,  so  as  to  allow  of  one  being  used  for  kitchen 
and  servants'  quarters.  The  country  boats  are  well 
enough  for  one  who  is  prepared  to  rough  it  a  little, 
and  they  may  be  hired  at  the  rate  of  forty  rupees  a 
month  for  two,  including  the  services  of  eight  ser- 
vants. You  can  pay  five  times  as  much  for  the  use 
of  a  boat  on  the  English  pattern,  but  then  it  is  likely 
to  be  fitted  with  "  all  the  modern  appliances." 

This  water  life,  which  lasts  for  two  months,  is 
varied  by  leisurely  excursions  along  the  river  and 
into  the  lakes.  In  fact,  so  extensively  intersected  by 
streams  and  canals  is  the  valley  that  one  may  go  all 
over  the  central  plain  by  water.  The  passage  of  the 
A\^dar  Lake  is  not  unattended  with  danger ;  for,  like 
all  lakes  surrounded  by  mountains,  it  is  subject  to 
sudden  and  furious  storms.  This  is  the  largest  inland 
body  of  water  in  India,  and  only  twelve  miles  long  at  that. 


Panorama  of  Kashmir 


SRINAGAR.  31 7 

Srinagar,  or  the  "City  of  the  Sun,"  the  capital  of 
the  country,  has  a  population  of  over  a  hundred  thou- 
sand. The  city  lies  along  the  banks  of  the  Jhelam, 
which  follows  a  tortuous  course  completely  through  it, 
and  goes  with  its  tributaries  and  several  canals  to 
form  a  system  of  intricate  but  useful  waterways. 
One  wonders  whether  the  gondola  might  not  be  a 
desirable  importation. 

The  river  is  spanned  along  its  two-mile  inter-urban 
course  by  half  a  score  of  quaint  wooden  bridges, 
somehow  suggestive  of  Japan.  The  houses  are  for 
the  most  part  of  wood — a  material  which  is  even  used 
in  the  construction  of  temples  and  pagodas — and  bear 
a  look  of  decrepitude,  which  may,  however,  be  merely 
the  effect  of  their  peculiar  construction.  They  are  in 
many  instances  four  or  five  stories  in  height,  and 
have  sloping  roofs,  covered  with  unworked  clay,  out 
of  which  crops  grass  and  weeds.  They  say  that  some 
of  these  wooden  dwellings  have  been  standing  for  two 
centuries,  and  not  a  few  of  them  look  as  though  they 
might  have  been  erected  when  Raja  Paravasin  laid  out 
the  city,  twelve  hundred  years  ago.  The  Maharaja  has 
a  palace  here,  an  ugly  brlck-and-wood  erection,  embel- 
lished with  varnish  and  paint,  red  and  green,  and  rein- 
forced by  a  gaudy,  gilt-topped  pagoda  in  the  compound. 

At  the  southern  end  of  the  city,  in  the  triaiiglo 
formed  by  the  river  and  the  mile-long  avenue  of  pop- 
lars, are  conveniently  grouped  the  Post  and  Telegraph 
Offices,  the   English   church,  the  dak   bungalow  — an 


318  INDIA. 

unusually  good  one  —  and  the  European  shops. 
Scarce  a  mile  to  the  east  stands  the  "  Throne  of 
St>loman,"  six  thousand  feet  above  sea  levely  and  a 
thousand  feet  above  the  city.  From  the  summit  a 
fine  view  compensates  for  the  labor  of  the  ascent.  In 
every  direction  the  horizon  is  curtailed  by  mountain 
ranges  with  snow-tipj)ed  }X3aks,  the  intervening  plain 
presenting  a  picture  of  profuse  vegetation,  maintained 
in  perfect  verdure  by  an  intricate  network  of  sinuous 
streams.  To  the  west,  Srinagar  lies  scattered  in  pictur- 
esque disorder,  and  a  little  to  the  north,  on  higher 
ground,  walled  Hari  Parbat,  with  the  fort  that  Akbar 
gave  it.  Lying  at  the  foot  of  the  "  Throne,"  and  stretch- 
ing four  miles  to  the  northward  in  its  oval  bounds,  is 
the  Dal  Lake,  dotted  with  woody  islets.  Along  its 
banks  are  planted  gardens  and  groves,  gorgeous  with 
summer  blossoms,  waving  in  the  lake  breeze  beneath 
the  shady  branches  of  the  cypress  and  the  magnolia. 
The  hand  of  Jahan  Shiih  and  that  of  his  unhappy 
father  are  seen  in  these  spots  of  sensuous  beauty. 

Where  the  lake  and  the  northeast  quarter  of  the 
city  converge,  the  "  floating  gardens  "  form  a  curious 
feature  of  the  landscape.  These  aquatic  vegetable 
beds  are  peculiar  to  this  locality.  The  reeds  are  cut 
down  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the  tops  laid 
evenly  over  the  area  thus  treated,  and  covered  with  a 
thin  layer  of  bottom  mud.  On  the  bed  thus  formed 
are  arrayed  close  to  each  other  little  conical  heaps  of 
weeds,  with  a  topping  of  rich  soil.     On  each  cone  are 


SRINAGAR.  319 

set  three  plants  of  cucumber,  melon  or  tomato,  and 
there  is  nothing  further  to  do  but  gather  the  produce, 
which  grows  with  astonishing  vigor,  and  is  invariably 
fine  and  abundant. 

The  famous  Kashmir  shawls  are  of  two  kinds — 
those  made  by  hand  and  those  woven  upon  a  loom. 
The  wool  used  is  got  from  the  under-parts  of  the 
goats  pastured  upon  the  elevated  regions,  from  the 
mountain  yak,  and  even  from  the  herd  dog,  whi(!h 
inhabits  the  same  districts.  The  weavers  are  Muham- 
madans,  and  the  most  miserable  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation, physically  and  morally.  They  arc  poorly 
paid,  especially  since  the  demand  for  their  produce 
has  fallen  off,  and  live  crowded  together  in  dirty,  ill- 
ventilated  quarters,  which  for  discomfort  and  unsani- 
tary conditions  surpass  the  worst  sweat-shop  quarters 
of  New  York.  The  trade,  which  at  one  time  was  great 
and  lucrative,  passed  through  France ;  but,  with  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  it  suddenly 
collapsed,  and  has  never  revived.  Fashion  shelved  the 
Kashmir  shawl,  and  thousands  were  thrown  out  of 
employment.  To  a  considerable  extent,  however,  the 
manufacture  of  carpets  has  replaced  the  old  industry. 

A  great  number  of  the  poj^ulation,  particularly  in 
the  villages  during  the  winter  months,  arc  engaged  in 
makiug  the  long  woolen  garment  of  Tibetan  fashion, 
which  is  the  universal  dress  of  all  classes.  AVith  the 
poorest  people  it  is  the  sole  article  of  clothing  worn. 
When  a  man  can  ailbrd  to  do  so,  he  reinfcnves  this 


o20  INDIA. 

bathrobe-like  gown  with  another,  or  perhaps  two  more, 
exactly  similar.  There  is  absolutely  no  attempt  at 
variety,  and  no  thought  of  underwear,  although  the 
climate  in  the  winter  months  is  quite  severe. 

Before  the  introduction  of  the  English  product, 
the  paper  of  Kashmir  was  held  in  high  esteem 
throughout  India,  and  there  is  still  some  demand  for 
it.  A  considerable  trade  is  done  in  a  lacquered  papier 
mache,  for  which  smooth  wood  is  sometimes  substi- 
tuted, peculiar  to  Kashmir.  The  design,  in  bright 
colors,  generally  green,  blue  and  crimson,  takes  the 
form  of  floral  and  conventional  patterns,  similar  to 
those  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  Kashmir  shawls. 

The  stone-cutters  of  Srinagar  are  very  expert ;  and 
the  silversmiths,  though  somewhat  deficient  in  origin- 
ality, display  a  remarkable  aptitude  for  producing 
faithful  copies  of  Oriental  and  European  designs. 

At  one  time,  and  for  centuries,  Kashmir  had  a 
highly  profitable  trade  in  sword-blades  and  pistol-bar- 
rels ;  but,  with  more  peaceful  times,  the  demand  has 
fallen  off,  and  the  present  output,  a  very  limited  one,  is 
in  the  shape  of  imitation  antiquities,  which  go  to  tourists. 

The  principal  export  and  import  traffic  is  with  the 
Punjab  and  with  Afghanistan,  the  routes  being  from 
Srinagar,  in  the  first  case,  to  Amritsar,  by  the  Barihal 
Pass ;  and,  in  the  second,  to  Peshawar,  by  way  of  tho 
Baramula  Pass. 

END   OF   VOL.    I. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


AI0V2  91952 

mR  7  -  RECO 


I\Ar 


I 


Form  L9— 15w-10,'48(B1039)444 


THE  LIBRARY' 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CiLFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


I|;i...)i  iii|i!i 


3  1158  00826  7360 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    001  138  979    8 


#i!l-i^':- 


■  .-;a- ■;'_■;>•  y.y.; 


» 


